Unit 4
English in Context
Language plays quite an important role in human lives. It is a social phenomenon. One of the most important goals of language is to converse with people and to understand them. When someone speaks, they intends a specific purpose. They wants to convey a message through the medium of their language. A person uses his language for a number of different purposes for instance, to express his feelings, to elicit help and to apologize.
In fact, we use language in various ways, some of these are, the informational, the expressive, the directive, the phatic, the aesthetic. We use language which language is a part of society. Geoffrey Leech (1974) has described five main functions of language. They are:
- Descriptive or Informational Function
- Expressive Function
- Directive Function
- Aesthetic Function
- Social or Phatic Function
Descriptive or Informational Function
The descriptive function can be considered most important, since it helps us deliver messages, describe things, and give our listener new information. Actually, message could be a word that describes this function best. The descriptive function is also related to such terms as a truth and a value. Informative language function is fundamentally the communication of data.
- The descriptive function works on propositions by affirming or denying them, as in science or the statement of a fact.
- This function is employed to describe the world or inform regarding the logical existence of things (e.g.., whether a state of affairs has occurred or not or what may have led to it).
- The sentences spoken or written with the intent of a descriptive function have a truth value; meaning, the sentences are either true or false (recognizing, of course, that we may not know what that truth value is). Hence, they are important for logic.
Expressive Function
Expressive language function reports the emotions or attitudes of the author (or speaker), or of the topic, or evokes feelings in the reader (or listener).
- Poetry and literature are among the most effective examples, but much of, perhaps most of, ordinary language discourse is the expression of emotions, feelings or attitudes.
- Two main aspects of this function are generally noted: (1) evoking certain feelings and (2) expressing feelings.
- Expressive discourse, qua expressive discourse, is best thought to be neither true or false. E.g., Shakespeare's King Lear's lament, "Ripeness is all!" or Dickens' "It was the best of times, and it was the worst of times; it was the age of wisdom; it was the age of foolishness…" nonetheless, the "logic" of "fictional statements" is a stimulating area of inquiry.
Directive Function
Directive language function refers to the language used for the objective of causing (or preventing) overt action.
- The directive function is most typically found in commands and requests.
- Directive language isn't normally considered true or false (although various logics of commands are developed).
- Example of this function: "Close the windows." The sentence "You're smoking in a non-smoking area," although declarative, may be employed to mean "Do not smoke in this area."
Aesthetic Function
According to Leech (1974), the aesthetic function doesn’t have any particular purpose. In the aesthetic function, the words and sentences are considered as linguistic artefacts. This function serves neither as a request nor as a message. The aesthetic function helps us use words as a tool of a poetic art, and as certain signs. Here the harmony of chosen words and phrases is more important than usefulness of this information. For the sake of such a function, we use different adjectives, like “gorgeous”, “elegant”, “stunning”, and so on. According to Jacobson (1933), who studied this function of language quite a lot, actually more than anyone else, the aesthetic function depends not only on structure, but on cultural norms also . He also gives an example of such influence, comparing poems of Karel Macha, and diaries, as samples of aesthetic functions applied by different generations.
Social or Phatic Function
The only purpose of such a function is to keep up social relationships, and to start, or continue the conversation. Phatic language can also be described as "Elevator talk" and street-corner conversations accomplishing a social task. A well-known example from British culture may be a gossip about the weather. Such forms of talk doesn’t provide us with any necessary information. It even doesn’t express our feelings, but it helps us to interact with people. Every time we meet somebody on the road, we typically mention the weather, or work, or children, it doesn’t matter. The real reason for such a conversation isn't our interest, but simply our desire to speak. Of course, such conversations can also contain some interesting information, but it’s not necessary. Note the subtle transition from vocal behaviour to body language from saying for instance, "Hi" or "How are you?" to a nod or a wave of the hand.
Key Takeaways
- Geoffrey Leech (1974) has described five main functions of language. They are: Descriptive or Informational Function, Expressive Function, Directive Function, Aesthetic Function, Social or Phatic Function.
- The descriptive function of language helps us deliver messages, describe things, and give our listener new information.
- Expressive language function reports the emotions or attitudes of the author (or speaker), or of the topic, or evokes feelings in the reader (or listener).
- Directive language function refers to the language used for the objective of causing (or preventing) overt action. Directive language isn't normally considered true or false.
- In the aesthetic function of language, the words and sentences are considered as linguistic artefacts. It helps us use words as a tool of a poetic art, and as certain signs.
- Phatic or social language function can also be described as "Elevator talk" and street-corner conversations accomplishing a social task. The only purpose of such a function is to keep up social relationships, and to start, or continue the conversation.
Bias-free language is language which is sensitive to people’s sex, race, age, physical inclination and many other categories. Bias-free language doesn't discriminate and thus includes all communicators in a fair and friendly manner. Sometimes the language we use reflects our stereotypes. While in speech our facial expressions or maybe gestures may convince our listeners that we aren't being offensive, in writing it's even harder to do.
To avoid confusion and miscommunication on the part of the receiver, use language that's clear, objective, and stereotype-free. Bias-free language is communication that doesn't stereotype or demean people depending on their personal characteristics including gender, gender expression, race, ethnicity, economic background, ability/disability status, religion, sexual orientation, etc.
Avoiding Sexism and Gender Stereotypes
Use gender parallelism: use the word woman in the context where you would use man, lady where you'd use gentleman, and girl where you would use boy.
- Biased: I gave my name to the girl at the most desk.
- Better: I gave my name to the lady at the most desk.
Use appropriate pronouns when conversing about people that may be either male or female. Avoid using masculine pronouns when the gender of the person isn't known.
- Biased: Each manager must debrief his department.
- Better: Each manager must debrief their department.
When a word has the suffix -man or -woman, check to ascertain if it reflects the gender of the person described. Use more neutral alternatives when gender isn't important to the thought you're getting across. For example, use chairperson or chair rather than chairman, fire fighter rather than fireman, or sales person rather than salesman.
- Biased: Give your report to the committee chairman.
- Better: Give your report to the committee chair/chairperson.
Given below is a list of occupational terms that may be problematic:

Avoiding Racism and Ageism
If race or ethnicity is employed to describe an individual, it's to be relevant to the data presented. Ethnic and racial labels often change and deciding which term is the correct one are often hard. Should we say African American or black? Hispanic or Latino/Latina? American Indian or Native American? And is Asian the preferred term? As Hult and Huckin state: "The best rule of thumb is to call people by whatever term they like, just as you must pronounce their personal name however they want it pronounced. If you're unsure of what to use to describe a particular group of individuals, just ask members of that group". Mention a person’s race or age only on the condition that it's relevant to the story.
- Biased: an odd black man spoke to me at the market.
- Better: an odd man spoke to me at the market.
Be aware of preferred group terms.
- Biased: The bus of eastern senior citizens took a left turn at the red light.
- Better (only if the age and race are relevant): The bus of Asian older adults took a left turn at the red light.
Disability and Disease
Biased labels are often generated when we use collective nouns and adjectives. The use of labels for the disabled must be avoided like 'the schizophrenics'; instead, use people with disabilities, people diagnosed with schizophrenia.
Experts also recommend using emotionally neutral expressions when describing people with disabilities: a person with AIDS rather than an AIDS victim, a person with emphysema rather than a person suffering from emphysema.
Focus on people rather than conditions.
- Biased: I met an epileptic on the bus today.
- Better: I met someone with epilepsy on the bus today.
Key Takeaways
- Bias-free language is language which is sensitive to people’s sex, race, age, physical inclination and many other categories.
- Bias-free language is communication that doesn't stereotype or demean people depending on their personal characteristics including gender, gender expression, race, ethnicity, economic background, ability/disability status, religion, sexual orientation, etc.
- To avoid gender discrimination, use appropriate pronouns when conversing about people that may be either male or female. Use more neutral alternatives when gender isn't important to the thought you're getting across.
- When it comes to avoid racial discrimination, according to Hult and Huckin: "The best rule of thumb is to call people by whatever term they like, just as you must pronounce their personal name however they want it pronounced. If you're unsure of what to use to describe a particular group of individuals, just ask members of that group".
- Biased labels are often generated when we use collective nouns and adjectives. The use of labels for the disabled must be avoided like 'the schizophrenics'; instead, use people with disabilities, people diagnosed with schizophrenia.
Introduction
Throughout your career, you'll likely meet several people that can help you develop needed skills and make progress. You can form a powerful connection with an interviewer, network contact or mentor and even a new friend once you have a refined self-introduction.
Learning how to introduce yourself professionally and informally has many advantages. Others may perceive you as self-assured and capable if you begin with a powerful introduction. An effective opening can make your conversation more engaging, whether your goal is to achieve employment, make a sale, acquire a mentor or simply make a brand-new professional connection. Establishing yourself as an open, friendly and professional individual can create opportunities in personal as well as professional life.
Below are the steps you can follow for a good introduction:
1. State Your Purpose: Many people introduce themselves by stating their name and current job title, but you must also attempt to add information your new contact can't find on your business or identity card. If you are at a business event or conference, consider starting with your name, then stating what your passion is. You could also mention what your goal is for the encounter, like finding someone to collaborate with on a new idea that you have formulated.
If you're interviewing for a job, it may be beneficial to summarize who you are and why you are there. The position you are applying for is already known to the interviewers, therefore, in your introduction explain your purpose in a few sentences. You must include your name and the reasons why you are a good candidate for the position.
Start your introduction in a way that is appropriate for the context. For instance, if you're at a conferencing event, you may simply start your introduction by shaking a new connection's hand and providing them your first and last name. Then, a conversation may be started by asking and answering questions on their background and your own.
Interview introduction example: “My name is Jacob, I moved to Los Angeles because advertising is my passion, and this is the environment to seek out an inspirational, innovative ad community. I have a background in analyzing audiences for messaging optimization and would like to tell you about the innovative ideas I can bring to this role.”
2. Control Your Body Language: Both your words and your non-verbal communication make an impact on first impressions. Having command over body language is essential to staying poised and professional in a new introduction. For example, when you approach a new coworker in your department, start with a strong handshake, and maintain eye contact during the conversation. Doing this shows the receiving party you're engaged in your interaction.
When you introduce yourself to someone, you'll be able to demonstrate confidence by speaking in an exceedingly clear and audible voice. While communicating, try to maintain eye contact, natural body language with relaxed shoulders and open arms by your side. If you are seated, stand to greet someone who walks in the room while introducing yourself accompanied by a handshake if required, such as during an interview.
3. Explain Your Value: Employers might schedule multiple interviews throughout the day or week for employment opening. In a professional setting. An introduction should convey one's unique experience and qualifications so they stand out from other candidates. Hearing an introduction that sounds different from previous ones directs a new contact's attention toward the speaker and makes it unforgettable. During an interview introduction, for instance, you must let your interviewer know how you would make a valuable contribution to the company or the team.
Example: “My name is Charlotte, and I have more 10 years of experience working in the field of public relations. I have worked with over 20 destination marketing firms to extend tourism at their destinations, leading to 40% more business at certain locations.”
4. Understand the Culture: Consider researching the corporate before an interview or meeting to know their culture. Before an introduction with a computer programming company, for example, review the web site or social media pages to ascertain what the culture is like. If the corporate seems more casual, it should be appropriate to incorporate humour in your introduction. For a more formal interview or a meeting with a potential client, keeping a more professional demeanour may increase your chances to get hired or to gain the client's business.
Thanx
Saying thank you to someone or writing a thank-you note/email message is a lovely gesture to express your appreciation and gratitude. There are many opportunities to send them, too. In the business world, a show of gratitude could make the difference between getting the job, the client, or the contract and being passed over.
A thank-you note can reinforce the impression you left with the interviewer and make you stand out from the competition. If you take the time to say thanx to someone personally, it will always be appreciated, regardless of the circumstances. People like to be thanked for their efforts, and they remember those who take the time to send a note or email.
Given below are some general phrases for thanking someone that may be used for all personal and professional communications:
- Thank you so much.
- Thank you very much.
- I appreciate your consideration/guidance/help/time.
- I sincerely appreciate ….
- My sincere appreciation/gratitude/thanks.
- My thanks and appreciation.
- Please accept my deepest gratitude.
- Thank you for your assistance/consideration/encouragement/guidance/support/thoughtfulness/time.
Apologies
Apologizing sincerely is a way to help rebuild relationships with people you've hurt. That could be colleagues, clients, friends, or family. You open a dialog with the other person by owning up to your mistake. That way, you'll be able to reflect on and take responsibility for your actions. And they can process their feelings, restore their dignity, and avoid blaming themselves for what happened. Apologizing can assist you to act better in the future, maintain your self-respect, and restore your integrity in the eyes of others. Your apology might not be accepted at once, but you will probably feel relieved that you have done the right thing and tried to make amends for your mistake. According to relationship psychologist Nicole McCance, it is often better to apologize face-to-face than to say sorry in a letter or email. Apologizing in person lets reinforces the sense of sincerity with the help of non-verbal cues such as facial expressions, tone of voice, and body language.
An apology is a statement that consists of two key elements. It:
- Shows you feel remorse over your actions.
- Acknowledges the hurt that your actions caused to the individual.
A four-step framework has been provided by psychologists Steven Scher and John Darley that may be used to present an apology:
- Express Remorse for a Mistake
- Admit Responsibility
- Make Amends
- Promise That It Won't Happen Again
Regrets
Regret refers to an individual having a feeling of sadness about something that they did or did not do in the past. Regrets are a part and parcel of life and are always concerned with events or actions that took place in the past. There are many instances when one wants to express their regret regarding a certain situation or action, for this purpose, given below are some useful expressions and structures to use when you want to express your regret about something that you did or did not do:
I wish/If only + Past perfect
- I wish I had come to your party!
- I wish I had worked harder.
- If only I hadn’t eaten so much.
- If only I had driven more carefully.
I should have (not) + Past Participle
- I should have come to your party.
- I should have worked harder.
- I shouldn’t have eaten so much.
- I should have driven more carefully.
I regret + Noun/Verb-ing
- I regret not coming to your party.
- I regret not working harder.
- I regret eating so much.
- I regret leaving you alone.
Good Wishes
There are a wide variety of 'good wishes' statements that can provide encouragement and add a special sentiment in speech, or a card, letter, or email. The following are examples of statements that can be used for special occasions such as weddings, birthdays, and graduations. There are also sentences for sending someone "get well" wishes during an illness or surgery. Providing good wishes to someone can be heartfelt and memorable. You can tailor these statements to fit your particular need or situation. You can also create a quote of your own to say best wishes from your heart in your own original way. Either way, it’s a nice addition to whatever else you write in your message.
Expressing good wishes
- I wish you a safe/pleasant journey.
- I’m sure that you’ll have a great /wonderful / fantastic trip.
- I hope you have a great/super/fantastic time.
- Good luck in your new endeavours.
- Best wishes for the holidays.
- May all your dreams come true!
- Please remember me to your family.
- Please give my best wishes to everyone.
- Please say hi to everyone for me.
Congratulations
Congratulating an individual either orally or a card or with a warm handwritten message is an effective way to honour that person and recognize their hard work and achievement. It’s one of life’s greatest joys to see someone you know accomplish what they’ve been hoping for and working toward. No matter what the occasion is, congratulations are a must for events such as celebrating a new job, promotion at work, new baby, wedding announcement, the end of a difficult project at work, marathon after months of training etc. There is a 3-step formula that can be followed in order to express congratulations:
- Start by stating how happy you are for them. Be specific.
- Comment on their hard work and give a compliment on their hard-earned success.
- Focus on the future with an encouraging comment.
Examples of How to Congratulate Someone Using the 3-Step Formula
Congratulations on the Job Promotion (Formal)
- Congratulations, that’s wonderful news! I’m thrilled for you! This is a well-deserved promotion after your years of hard work and dedication. Here’s to many more promotions to come and all your future success.
Congratulations on a New Job (Informal)
- That’s fantastic! Congrats on getting the job. I knew the right position would come along. Best wishes for future endeavours.
Congratulations on a Wedding Announcement (Informal)
- Congratulations on your wedding announcement! I’m excited for both of you and I know you’ll have many happy years together.
Congratulations on Buying a New Home (Informal)
- Oh, that’s awesome! Congrats to you both on the new home. I can’t wait to see how you remodel it and make it your own!
Some informal exclamations to congratulate someone in English include:
- Congrats! That’s fantastic. (That’s fantastic news!)
- You did it! I knew you could.
- That’s awesome! Congratulations on a job well done.
- Bravo!
- Woohoo!
- Yea!
- Cheers to you.
- Way to go!
- Good for you!
- That rocks!
- You nailed it!
- Phenomenal!
- Great work! / I knew you could do it!
- All your hard work has finally paid off.
Some formal exclamations to congratulate someone in English include:
- Congratulations! You deserve this success.
- Congratulations on your hard work.
- My sincere/heartfelt/warmest congratulations to you.
- I commend you on your accomplishments/success.
- Well done!
- That’s wonderful news.
- Offering Help and Food/Beverage,
Offering Help and Food/Beverage
In day-to-day conversations with people we find ourselves offering something to them or they offering something to us. In any language there are certain expressions that can be used to offer help or food and beverages effectively and it’s always useful to learn these set phrases so that we can use them in conversations. While offering help to someone or offering a food or beverage, the following phrases/sentences may be helpful:
Do you need......?
- This expression is useful when offering help with something.
"Do you need me to assist you cross the road?
Would you like…?
- This expression is the most typical way of offering help to someone, or inviting them to do something.
‘Would you like a hand with your shopping bag?’
Do you want…?
- You can also use this expression which is more informal to offer a food/beverage to someone:
‘Do you want another coffee?’
Would you care for…?
- This is quite a formal way of asking someone if they need something. You will often hear this expression in hotels and restaurants:
‘Would you care for dessert, madam?’
“Would you care for a glass of champagne, sir?”
(Do you) fancy…? (British English)
- This expression is very often used in the UK. It’s informal and is employed to ask someone if they might like something.
“Do you fancy chicken or beef for dinner?”
“Fancy a sandwich?”
Who wants…? Who would like……?
- This is used when offering something to a group of individuals.
Who wants an ice cream?
Who would like something to drink?
Can I get you…?
- This expression is employed especially when offering someone food or drink, although it may be utilized in other situations as well:
‘Can I get you anything?’
‘Can I get you a cushion’?
What will you have? and What can I get you?
- These two expressions are used when asking someone what they need like, especially in a restaurant, bar or café:
‘It’s my turn to get the drinks. What will you have?’
Good afternoon, madam. What can I get you?
Farewells
Bidding farewell to a friend or colleague can be difficult but must be done in a proper manner be it a social/casual goodbye or a formal gesture. Given below are some words and phrases along with their uses which may help you bid farewell to an individual in different situations:
- Bye – this is the simple, short, and sweet version of saying goodbye to someone without being too informal.
- Goodbye -The basic farewell greeting, suitable for all occasions.
- Bye-bye– This version is a bit more informal and is best to be used around friends and family.
- Farewell – This is a formal way to tell someone to be safe while they are away from you.
- See you – This is a more formal way of saying ‘see you later’. Used more in a formal sense or workplace.
- Take care – this is more so used with family and friends showing care for those who are leaving.
- I’m off – Used in almost any situation, but mostly informal
- Gotta go! – This is mostly used in the informal sense, which grew in popularity in chat rooms when the short cut ‘g2g’ became popular
- Good night – Good night is used when well, you want to wish the person a good night. The more informal form of this is just ‘night’ or ‘nighty-night’
- See you later– This phrase is more often used in an informal setting, like with friends and family.
- Keep in touch– this is more so used with friends and family who don’t see each other often and wish to keep in contact with them
- Catch you later– Catch you later means the same thing as ‘see you later’, but it is even more informal.
- See you soon– this is a more formal way of saying ‘see you later’ or ‘See you’. This is mostly used when you know you will see the other person or group within the next few hours.
- I gotta take off– a shortened form of ‘I have got to take off’, this phrase is used for informal situations, implying a sense of urgency in their exit.
- Talk to you later– talk to you later is mostly used in the same way as the phrase ‘see you later’. The shortcut ‘ttyl’ is also a way of saying ‘talk to you later’
- See you next time– this phrase is used when you know you that you will see the other person or party again, but you are not sure when that next time will be.
- Have a good one – this is a time-neutral way to tell someone goodbye. This is a formal way to say goodbye as well.
- Have a good (nice) day– This is a formal way to tell someone goodbye. This is used when you say goodbye to someone when a majority of the day has yet to pass.
- I’ve got to get going/ I must be going– This is an informal way of telling someone goodbye while also providing a sense of urgency. This is a longer form of ‘gotta go’ and generally means the same thing.
Condolences
When someone you know has suffered the loss of an acquaintance, a close friend or loved one, it's important to allow them to know you're thinking of them. It is often quite difficult to understand how best to express your condolences to someone who is recently bereaved but bear in mind that simply making contact and showing they are in your thoughts may be of some comfort.
Sending your condolences means contacting someone who is recently bereaved and offering some words of comfort or sympathy for his or her loss. It is a way of acknowledging that they're grieving and showing that you genuinely care about them. There are an infinite number of ways to write a message of condolence or to express it orally. Condolences can be offered by means of sympathetic words or non-verbal gestures such as a comforting hug or sending flowers or a card etc.
The goal of expressing condolences is to be compassionate and show your concern for the bereaved. You can say how much you'll miss the individual died or you can share a cheerful memory. The most important thing to relay is that you care about the bereaved person and you're available as a source of support.
Below are some ways of expressing condolences:
- “I’m sorry for your loss.” is a cliché but is still a very powerful statement to let the person know that you care.
- “You are in my thoughts/I’m thinking of you.” Letting the grieving individual know that you are conscious of the emotional difficulty of things can help a bereaved person feel less isolated in his or her experience, and reminding the individual that you care enough to be thinking about them can help a bereaved person feel less isolated in the world.
- “He/she was a beautiful person.” or “I will miss him/her.”
- “This must be so hard for you.” Acknowledging the pain and grief that the bereaved is feeling is often very consoling.
- “I love you.” If you’re close enough, reminding a grieving individual that you love them may be powerful.
Key Takeaways
- An effective self-introduction can make your conversation more engaging, whether your goal is to achieve employment, make a sale, acquire a mentor or simply make a brand-new professional connection.
- Many people introduce themselves by stating their name and current job title, but you must also attempt to add information your new contact can't find on your business or identity card.
- Having command over body language is essential to staying poised and professional in a new introduction. For example, when you approach a new coworker in your department, start with a strong handshake, and maintain eye contact during the conversation.
- Saying thank you to someone or writing a thank-you note/email message is a lovely gesture to express your appreciation and gratitude. A thank-you note can reinforce the impression you left with the interviewer and make you stand out from the competition.
- Apologizing sincerely is a way to help rebuild relationships with people you've hurt including colleagues, clients, friends, or family.
- According to relationship psychologist Nicole McCance, it is often better to apologize face-to-face than to say sorry in a letter or email.
- Regret refers to an individual having a feeling of sadness about something that they did or did not do in the past.
- Providing good wishes to someone can be heartfelt and memorable. You can tailor these statements to fit your particular need or situation.
- Congratulating an individual either orally or a card or with a warm handwritten message is an effective way to honour that person and recognize their hard work and achievement.
- Bidding farewell to a friend or colleague can be difficult but must be done in a proper manner be it a social/casual goodbye or a formal gesture. Phrases helpful for bidding farewell include: bye, goodbye, farewell, see you, see you later, see you soon, keep in touch, catch you later, talk to you later etc.
- It is often quite difficult to understand how best to express your condolences to someone who is recently bereaved but bear in mind that simply making contact and showing they are in your thoughts may be of some comfort.
- The goal of expressing condolences is to be compassionate and show your concern for the bereaved.
References
- Oxford Guide to writing and speaking, John Seely, O.U.P
- A Communicative Grammar of English, Leech, G.N. And Jan Svartvik
- Better English Pronunciation, J.O O’ Corner, Cambridge.
- Effective Technical Communication, M.Asraf Rizvi, Tata McGraw Hill
- Technical Communication Today, Bovea et al. Pearson.