Unit 1

Communicative English

1.1.       Communicative English, Nature and Process of Communication

1.1.1.    Communicative English

Communicative English simply refers to the use of the English language for communication. The word “Communication” has come from the Latin word “communis”, which suggests common. Thus, communication signifies sharing of ideas in common. The dictionary meaning of communication is to convey or exchange information and share ideas.

It is a process through which two or more persons transmit or exchange thoughts and concepts among themselves. W. H. Newman and C. F. Summer define communication as, “Communication is an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions or emotions by two or more persons.”

Communication is the process of transferring information by means of speaking, reading, listening and writing. Although the act of communication is heavily dependent on these four skills, it goes beyond these and also incorporate non-verbal elements such as body language, expressions, sign language, electronically transmitted codes (Morse code etc.) etc. It is both an art and a science.

Although every individual communicates simply by being in the world, learning effective communication skills requires hard work and determination. Developing good verbal and body language skills involves learning and consciously using your skills to improve.

One must be thoroughly familiar with all styles of correspondence in order to facilitate effective communication. The form of communication intrinsically depends upon the purpose and the central idea of the message to be conveyed. For example, it is feasible to acquire information or provide information using a formal phone call or an email whereas while conveying bad news to a particular individual a face-to-face conversation is considered rather apt.

Communication can be formal or informal

1. Formal communication: Formal Communication is the exchange of official information that flows along the different levels of the organizational hierarchy and conforms to the prescribed professional rules, policy, standards, processes and regulations of the organization.
2. Informal communication: Informal Communication is the casual and unofficial form of communication wherein the information is exchanged spontaneously between two or more persons without conforming the prescribed official rules, processes, system, formalities and chain of command.

Characteristics of Good Communication (The 7Cs of Communication)

The seven C’s of communication is a list of principles that you should ensure all of your communications adhere to. Their purpose is to help ensure that the person you’re communicating with hears what you’re trying to say. The seven C’s of communication include: clear, correct, complete, concrete, concise, considered and courteous.

1. Clear

There are several stages to clarity.

Firstly, it’s important to be clear about the purpose of the message you’re delivering. The recipient should be made aware of why they are receiving the message and what you’re trying to achieve by delivering it. If there are multiple goals, each should be laid out separately.

Secondly, it’s essential that the content of the communication is itself clear. The use of jargon must be avoided, use simple language and simple structures and always focus on the core points of your message.

2. Correct

It’s essential that both the factual information and the language and grammar you use are correct. If your audience spots errors in either, they will be distracted and your credibility will be greatly reduced. This will reduce the effectiveness of your communication.

3. Complete

Completeness is often one of the most important of the 7 Cs of communication.

When creating a message, it’s important to give the recipient all of the information they need to follow your line of reasoning and to reach the same conclusions you have. This level of detail will be different in different situations, and you should adjust your communications accordingly.

In addition, you should make things as easy as possible for the recipient. For example, if you are issuing a “call to action”, provide explicit guidance on that action. Increasingly it’s common to include things like hyperlinks in written communications or to attach FAQs, both of which help audiences access a complete set of information while also ensuring that core communications focus on core messages.

4. Concrete

When shaping your communication, you must ensure that you are specific and that the logic and messages that you’re using fit together, build on each other and support each other. Your arguments should be based on solid facts and opinions from credible sources and you should share irrefutable data to support your argument.

It may be important to help bring the solid nature of what you’ve created to life for your audience through examples that show the relevance of your messages for them as individuals.

5. Concise

When communicating messages of this nature it’s important to stick to the point and keep your messages short and simple. If a message can be given in five words, don't make it ten. Don’t repeat your messages.

The more you say, the more risk there is of confusion. Avoid that risk by focusing solely on the key points you need to deliver.

6. Courteous

Not everyone knows how to use the 7 Cs of communication. You can increase the effectiveness of your communications by being polite and showing your audience that you respect them. Your messages should be friendly, professional, considerate, respectful, open and honest.

To help ensure you are courteous, you should always use some empathy and consider your messages from the point of view of the audience.

7. Coherent

The last of the 7 Cs of communication is coherence. If your communications are not coherent they will not be effective. To help make sure your communications are coherent you should have a logical flow and your style, tone and language should be consistent throughout.

In addition to making sure that each correspondence that is issued is coherent within itself, you should also ensure consistency of message when delivering multiple communications.

Key Takeaways

1. “Communication is an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions or emotions by two or more persons.” It is a process through which two or more persons transmit or exchange thoughts and concepts among themselves.
2. Communication is the process of transferring information by means of speaking, reading, listening and writing.
3. Formal Communication is the exchange of official information that flows along the different levels of the organizational hierarchy and conforms to the prescribed professional rules, policy, standards, processes and regulations of the organization.
4. Informal Communication is the casual and unofficial form of communication wherein the information is exchanged spontaneously between two or more persons without conforming the prescribed official rules, processes, system, formalities and chain of command.
5. The seven C’s of communication is a list of principles that you should ensure all of your communications adhere to. They are clear, correct, complete, concrete, concise, considered and courteous.
6. The recipient should be made aware of why they are receiving the message and what you’re trying to achieve by delivering it.
7. It’s essential that both the factual information and the language and grammar you use are correct.
8. When creating a message, it’s important to give the recipient all of the information they need to follow your line of reasoning and to reach the same conclusions you have.
9. Your arguments should be based on solid facts and opinions from credible sources and you should share irrefutable data to support your argument.
10. The more you say, the more risk there is of confusion. Avoid that risk by focusing solely on the key points you need to deliver.
11. You can increase the effectiveness of your communications by being polite and showing your audience that you respect them.
12. To help make sure your communications are coherent you should have a logical flow and your style, tone and language should be consistent throughout.

1.1.2.    Nature and Process of Communication

The nature of communication can be understood from the following points:

1. Two-way process: Communication is essentially a two-way process of understanding between two or more persons – sender and receiver. A person cannot communicate with himself.

2.     Continuous process: Exchange of ideas and opinions between people and groups is a continuous process in formal organisations as well as social groups. Continuous interaction promotes understanding and exchange of data relevant for decision-making.

3.     Dynamic process: Communication between sender and receiver takes different forms and medium depending upon their moods and demeanour. It is, thus, a dynamic process that keeps changing depending upon the situations.

4.     Pervasive: Communication is a pervasive activity. It takes place at all levels (top, middle, low) dealing with all functional areas (production, finance, personnel, sales) of a business.

5.     Two people: A minimum of two persons — sender and receiver — must be involved in order to facilitate communication. It may be between superiors, subordinates and colleagues, intra or inter se.

6.     Exchange: Communication involves exchange of ideas and opinions. People interact and develop understanding for each other.

7.     Means of unifying organisational activities: Communication unifies internal organisational environment with its external counterpart. It also integrates the input of human and physical resources and converts them into organisational output.

8.     Verbal and non-verbal: Though words are active carriers of data, gestures can sometimes be more powerful than words. Facial expressions, sounds, signs and symbols are the non-verbal varieties of communication.

9.     Mutual understanding: Communication is effective when sender and receiver develop interdependent understanding of the topic. Messages conveyed should be understood by the receiver within the desired sense.

10. Goal-oriented: Communication is goal-oriented. Unless the receiver and sender know the aim, they intend to achieve through communication, it has little practical utility.

11. Foundation of management: Though communication could be a directing function, it's important for other managerial functions also. Designing organisation structures, motivating people to accomplish personal, short term and Comlong-term goals and controlling organisational activities; all require communication amongst managers at various levels.

12. A means, not an end: Communication is not an end. Effective communication may be a means towards achieving the end, that is, goal accomplishment. It smoothens administrative operations by allowing planning, organising, staffing, directing and controlling functions.

13. Human activity: Since communication makes accomplishment of organisational goals possible, it's essential that individuals understand and like one another. If people don't understand each other’s’ viewpoint, there can't be effective communication.

14. Inter-disciplinary: Communication is essentially the art of how communicators use knowledge of various fields of study like anthropology, psychology and sociology. It is, thus, an inter-disciplinary area of management.

Key Takeaways

1. The need for business communication extends to: Employee communication, Public relations, Internet marketing, Customer communications, Investor relations, Non-profit agencies, Entertainment, sports and travel, Government and military, Education.
2. Communication is a continuous two-way process that facilitates the exchange of ideas.
3. Communication may be verbal or nonverbal, formal or informal.
4. Communication is goal oriented, meaning all communication is carried out with a purpose.
5. Effective communication may be a means towards achieving the end, that is, goal accomplishment.
6. Communication is effective when sender and receiver develop interdependent understanding of the topic.

1.2.       Communication and its Elements: Message, Sender, Encoding, Channel, Receiver, Decoding, Feedback

The communication process comprises of the following components:

1. Sender: Sender is the individual who wants to send the message to the receiver. A sender makes effective use of words, symbols, pictures, graphs etc. available to him to construct the message. The views, background, approach, skills, competencies, and knowledge of the sender determine whether the message is approachable or not.

2.     Encoding: Since the subject matter of communication is theoretical and intangible, its further passing requires use of certain symbols such as words, actions or pictures etc. Conversion of subject matter into these symbols is the process of encoding.

3.     Message: The message comprises of the information that is to be exchanged between the sender and the receiver. The central idea of the message must be clear and should be easily understood by the receiver.

The process of communication can be easily understood from the following flowchart:

4.     Channel: The medium of communication should be chosen with respect to the purpose of the message and the ability of the receiver to comprehend it. Hence, the sender must choose an appropriate medium for transmitting the message. The channel can be oral or written, the use of oral medium is preferred when the message is urgent and requires an immediate response, the written medium is preferred when the message is technical and there is a need for it to be documented.

5.     Decoding: The person who receives the message or symbol from the communicator tries to convert the same in such a way so that he may extract its meaning to his complete understanding.

6.     Receiver: The receiver is the individual to whom the message is addressed. The ability of the receiver to decode the message depends on the knowledge of the receiver, the reliance of the encoder, responsiveness of the receiver to the message.

7.     Feedback: After the receiver receives the message he tries to decode it, understand it and tried to provide a proper feedback to the sender, who then tries to interpret the feedback.

8.     Noise: It is the hindrance in the process of communication. It can take place at any step in the entire process. It reduces the accuracy of communication e.g. 1) Disturbance in the telephone lines, 2) An inattentive receiver 3) Improper Decoding of Message etc.

Feedback

The communication process incorporates a cycle which continues even after sending message to the respondents. The audience or the respondents may or may not get identical intended message which the speaker intends to send. This cycle ends only if they share their understanding and comments to the speaker about what they need understood. This process is called feedback.

Feedback is crucial in communication as it allows the sender of the message to know whether his message is received by the receiver and if the message is understood by the receiver in the same manner as it was intended by the sender. Receivers are not just passive absorbers of messages, they receive the message and express their opinion on the subject matter about what they have understood. This response of a receiver to sender’s message is termed Feedback. A feedback could also be non-verbal such as in the form of smiles, sighs and body language and other times, it is oral. It may also be in written form such as a replay to an e-mail, etc.

Feedback also enables us to evaluate the effectiveness of our message. It makes communication meaningful. It is the end-result of a concept and makes communication a continual process. If our audience doesn’t understand what we mean, we are able to tell by the response and so refine the message accordingly. Giving our audience an opportunity to produce feedback is crucial for maintaining an open communication climate. A suitable environment must be created by the speaker to encourage appropriate feedback. For example after explaining the task to the subordinated he must ask them whether or not they have understood it or not. He should ask questions like “Do you understand?”, “Do you have any doubts?” etc. At the same time, he must allow his subordinated to provide their views also.

From the organizational point of view, feedback holds a crucial value. There are a number of ways through which company asks for feedback from their employees, such as: Employee surveys, memos, emails, open-door policies, company newsletter etc. Employees are not always willing to provide feedback. The organization needs to work plenty to urge the accurate feedback. The managers must encourage feedback by asking specific questions and allowing their employees to express general views, etc. All business must be receptive to their employee’s feedback.

Static communication creates a vacuum. The speaker assumes the message is received but has no feedback from the listener. This lack of feedback means the speaker fails to formulate the message in a way which assists the listener better to understand the speaker’s attitude and position. When businesses fail to form open feedback channels, they operate in a communication vacuum. Management and owners can’t improve their messages to employees, and workers aren’t ready to ask questions regarding operations or make suggestions for business improvement.

In general, we may quantify the subsequent importance of feedback in communication, either in a formal or informal setting.

• It completes the entire process of communication and makes it continuous.
• It sustains communication process
• It makes one know if one is actually communication or making sense
• It acts as a basis for measuring the effectiveness of communication
• It is a good basis for planning on what next to be done especially statistical report
• Communication will be useless without feedback
• Feedback paves way for new idea generation

The basis being established here is that, feedback is the livewire of communication as communication is the livewire of human existence and interaction. The process of communication finishes only if the cycle winds up with feedback. Thus, feedback should be carefully considered before being put forward because of its significance.

Key Takeaways

1. “Communication is an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions or emotions by two or more persons.” It is a process through which two or more persons transmit or exchange thoughts and concepts among themselves.
2. Communication is the process of transferring information by means of speaking, reading, listening and writing.
3. Process of Communication – Sender, Encoding, Message, Channel, Decoding, Receiver, Feedback, Noise.
4. Feedback is crucial in communication as it allows the sender of the message to know whether his message is received by the receiver and if the message is understood by the receiver in the same manner as it was intended by the sender.
5. The need for business communication extends to: Employee communication, Public relations, Internet marketing, Customer communications, Investor relations, Non-profit agencies, Entertainment, sports and travel, Government and military, Education.

1.3.       Barriers to Communication

Communication is only complete if the message received by the recipient is interpreted in the same way as was intended by the sender. But due to the presence of a wide number of factors the message may be destroyed. These factors act as barriers to effective communication. It is essential to locate and eradicate these factors in order to allow free flowing communication.

Some of the barriers that block communication are listed below:

1. Linguistic/semantic Barriers– The linguistic ability of both the sender and receiver define their ability to effectively communicate. Especially when technical communication is concerned, the free flow of communication requires both parties to be sufficiently acquainted with the information that is being exchanged. For example, if two people from different backgrounds converse with the technical terminology of their own fields they are bound to misunderstand each other.

Semantic barriers are some of the most critical obstacles that limit effective communication. Language is that the most ordinarily employed tool of communication. The fact that every major region has its own language also contributes to being a barrier in effective communication. Sometimes even a thick dialect may render communication ineffective.

Even within the same workplace, different employees will have different linguistic skills. As a result, the communication channels that span across the organization would be suffering from this.

2.     Psychological Barriers- The psychological state of the receiver plays a significant role when processing information. Factors such as personal issues, worries and stress might affect the receiver’s ability to decode information as they might be preoccupied with their own concerns.

Anger on the sender’s end is also an example of a psychological barrier, while angry one tends to convey thoughts one doesn’t mean only to regret later. Shyness, anxiety and depression may also act as barriers.

3.     Interpersonal Barriers- There are six ways in which people can distance themselves from one another:

• Withdrawal - is an absence of interpersonal contact.
• Pastimes - Pastimes fill up time with others in social but superficial activities.

4.     Physical Barriers- Physical barriers such as noise, physical distance between the speaker and receiver, conditions of the topography, poor lighting, speech impediment, hearing disability also affect effective communication. They also include hinderances such as closed doors, faulty equipment used for communication, closed cabins, etc. Sometimes in a large office, the physical separation between various employees combined with faulty equipment may lead to severe barriers to effective communication.

5.     Perceptual Barriers- The difference in how individuals perceive things also play a role in communication. People often find themselves unable to accept messages that go against their upbringing and values. Here even though the communication is effective, the feedback suffers. A similar situation might be perceived differently by different individuals and therefore might create disagreement.

6.     Socio/Cultural Barriers- Different cultures possess different norms of social interactions and communication. Something deemed appropriate in one culture might not be the same in another. Body language and gestures play a vital role in non-verbal communication which might suffer due to cultural differences.

As the world is getting more and more globalized, multinational companies with large offices may have people from several parts of the world. Different cultures have a special meaning for several basic values of society. Dressing, religions or lack of them, food, drinks, pets, are different for each individual in society and hence the general behaviour will change drastically from one culture to another.

Hence, it's a must that we must take these different cultures into consideration while communicating. This is often referred to as being culturally appropriate. In many multinational companies, special courses are offered at the orientation stages that permit people to understand other cultures and the way to be courteous and tolerant towards these cultures.

7.     Inattention- One of the most common barriers towards effective communication is inattention, the receiver might simply be uninterested or might be daydreaming while the message is being conveyed to him.

8.     Organizational Barriers- Organisational policies should be clear to avoid misinterpretations. Expressly stated policies are better understood than implicit policies. As implicit policies are subject to interpretation of behaviour of top managers, people may be subjective in interpretation. Different people can draw different meaning of behavioural gestures which obstructs the effective flow of communication. Strict rules and regulations make observance to these rules also rigid. People lose creativity in transmitting messages. Choice of channels, medium and dimension of communication can be against the willingness of people and, thus, stand in the way of effective communication. Too many levels in the organisational hierarchy can delay processing of information. Information can be filtered, particularly in case of upward communication as negative information is generally not transmitted.

Ways to Overcome Communication Barriers

These barriers can be easily avoided with a little effort and dedication. Below are some methods useful for avoiding these communication barriers:

1. Clarity of words and purpose - Clarity is one of the most essential requirements of communication. While writing, it is necessary to write in good handwriting with proper grammar and sentence formation. While speaking one should use proper vocabulary and speak each word clearly and carefully along with proper inflections.

2.     Active Listening- One should listen carefully what the speaker is saying in order to understand properly and provide feedback. One should be attentive while listening, ask open ended questions and should be able to summarize the information provided by the speaker.

3.     Focus should be the other - While conversing one should maintain eye contact with the speaker as this shows the speaker that the message is being received by the listener. While speaking the focus should always be on the receiver.

4.     Non-Verbal Communication- One’s body language often speaks as loud as his words. While communication one should show one’s reactions and interests through their body language.

5.     Avoid Interruptions- It is essential to let the speaker finish talking before conveying one’s own thoughts. Interrupting is not only rude but also can be disadvantageous as one may not totally grasp the meaning of the speaker. If an interruption is absolutely necessary, one must use polite words like “pardon me” or “excuse me” instead of cutting the speaker in the middle of their thought process.

6.     Controlling Emotions and Thinking before Speaking- It is said one must think twice before they speak. One must always consider the opinions and feelings of others before speaking their mind. One must also consider one’s own emotions and not speak out of anger or frustration. The process of communication should be logical rather than emotional.

7.     The Message- The message one wishes to convey must always be clear and concise, there should be no doubts in one’s mind while speaking. The central idea of the message should always be conveyed completely and indubitably.

8.     Eliminating Noise- One must eliminate all the outside forces that might disturb the conversation in order to maintain the flow of the communication process.

9.     Feedback- One must pay attention to what the other person is saying and try to understand it as closely as possible to his intended meaning. This will allow him to provide proper responses.

Key Takeaways

1. Semantic barriers are some of the most critical obstacles that limit effective communication. When technical communication is concerned, the free flow of communication requires both parties to be sufficiently acquainted with the information that is being exchanged.
2. Factors such as personal issues, worries and stress might affect the receiver’s ability to decode information as they might be preoccupied with their own concerns.
3. Interpersonal berries include: Withdrawal, pastimes, working, games, closeness.
4. Physical barriers such as noise, physical distance between the speaker and receiver, conditions of the topography, poor lighting, speech impediment, hearing disability affect effective communication.
5. Cultural barriers include barriers due to cultural differences of eating habits, speaking, manners and etiquettes etc.
6. Choice of channels, medium and dimension of communication can be against the willingness of people and, thus, stand in the way of effective communication.
7. Ways to overcome communication barriers include: Clarity of words and purpose, active listening, focus on the speaker, non-verbal communication, avoiding interrupting the speaker, controlling emotions, thinking before speaking, focusing on the message, eliminating noise and providing feedback.

1.4.       Types of Communication: Intra-personal, Interpersonal, Group, Mass Communication, Verbal and Non-verbal Communication

1.4.1.    Intra-personal Communication

Intrapersonal communication can be described as a conversation with one’s own self, often for the purpose of clarifying ideas or analysing a situation. Other times, intrapersonal communication is undertaken in order to reflect upon or appreciate something. Three aspects of intrapersonal communication are self-concept, perception and expectation.

1. Self-concept:  It determines how a person sees him/herself and is oriented toward others. Self-concept (also called self-awareness) involves three factors: beliefs, values and attitudes.

Beliefs are basic personal orientation toward what is true or false, good or bad; beliefs can be descriptive or prescriptive. Values are deep-seated orientations and ideals, generally based on beliefs, about right and wrong ideas and actions. Attitudes are tendency toward or against a topic and generally are consistent with values. Attitudes often are global, typically emotional.

Beliefs, values and attitudes all influence behaviour, which can be either spoken opinion or physical action. It also includes body image as an aspect of intrapersonal communication. Body image is a way of perceiving ourselves, positively or negatively, according to the social standards of our culture

2.     Perception: Whereas self-concept focuses internally, perception looks outward. Perception of the outside world also is rooted in beliefs, values and attitudes. It is so closely intertwined with self-concept that creating a harmonious understanding of both oneself and one’s world.

3.     Expectations: Expectations are future-oriented messages dealing with long-term roles, sometimes called life scripts. These sometimes are projections of learned relationships within the family or society.

Key Takeaways

1. Intrapersonal communication can be described as a conversation with one’s own self, often for the purpose of clarifying ideas or analysing a situation.
2. There are 3 aspects of intrapersonal communication: Self-concept, perception and expectations.
3. Self-concept, also called self-awareness, determines how a person sees him/herself and is oriented toward others.
4. Perception of the outside world also is rooted in beliefs, values and attitudes.
5. Expectations are future-oriented messages dealing with long-term roles, sometimes called life scripts.

1.4.2.    Interpersonal Communication

Interpersonal communication skills are the skills one uses while communication with individuals or groups in their everyday lives. People with good interpersonal communication skills often tend to be more successful than people who lack them. Interpersonal communication skills are vital in all areas of one’s life. People with good interpersonal communication skills are able to work well with other people and are also good with social interactions.

Though they are more targeted towards communication, interpersonal skills also include understanding body language, active listening, using gestures to express thoughts and feelings, and also dealing with different attitudes. They also include the skills and attributes associated with emotional intelligence, or being able to understand and manage your own as well as others’ emotions.

Interpersonal skills are extensively useful in work environments, they help maintain good social relationships among colleagues and also help mitigate employer-employee affairs.

Some of the most common interpersonal skills are:

• Active listening
• Collaboration
• Problem-solving
• Conflict resolution
• Empathy
• Diplomacy
• Adaptability
• Leadership
• Mediation
• Patience

Improving Interpersonal Communication Skills

Interpersonal communication skills determine how far one can go not only in their career but also in their social life, therefore it is essential to hone one’s skills to perfection. People often assume that communication is a simple and natural thing but it is in fact a very complex process that involves a lot of learning. Hence it is said that there is a difference between communication and effective communication.

The development of interpersonal communication skills requires dedication and effort. The following are some of the ways in which one can improve their interpersonal communication skills:

1. Clarity- Clarity is one of the most essential requirements of communication. While writing, it is necessary to write in good handwriting with proper grammar and sentence formation. While speaking one should use proper vocabulary and speak each word clearly and carefully along with proper inflections.

2.     Active Listening- One should listen carefully what the speaker is saying in order to understand properly and provide feedback. One should be attentive while listening, ask open ended questions and should be able to summarize the information provided by the speaker.

3.     Maintaining Eye-Contact- While conversing one should maintain eye contact with the speaker as this shows the speaker that the message is being received by the listener.

4.     Non-Verbal Communication- One’s body language often speaks as loud as his words. While communication one should show one’s reactions and interests through their body language.

5.     Avoid Interruptions- It is essential to let the speaker finish talking before conveying one’s own thoughts. Interrupting is not only rude but also can be disadvantageous as one may not totally grasp the meaning of the speaker. If an interruption is absolutely necessary, one must use polite words like “pardon me” or “excuse me” instead of cutting the speaker in the middle of their thought process.

6.     Thinking before Speaking- It is said one must think twice before they speak. One must always consider the opinions and feelings of others before speaking their mind.

7.     The Message- The message one wishes to convey must always be clear and concise, there should be no doubts in one’s mind while speaking. The central idea of the message should always be conveyed completely and indubitably.

Developing Interpersonal Skills

There are 5 basic steps to develop interpersonal skills:

1. Always Be Self-aware

Self-awareness implies being aware of one’s own thoughts, feelings and emotions. This activity helps in gaining emotional intelligence which in turn helps in effective communication. Every individual is projecting subconscious messages throughout the day that might affect other people around them, therefore it is essential that one is mindful of their thoughts and only share what they want to.

2.     Being Respectful and Empathetic Towards Others

Everyone is entitled to their own opinions no matter how different or abstract they may be. To be a good communicator one must always respect another’s opinion with no judgment or condemnation. Empathy is a quality every great thinker and communicator throughout history, if one cannot be empathetic towards others one cannot understand how they feel or what they think in any given situation, therefore it is necessary that one should be compassionate and empathetic towards others.

3.     Actively Listening to others

Listening is probably the most underrated and overrated skill among the 4 basic communication skills. But much like the other skills it has to be honed and developed. Only when one listens clearly can one respond to a given message. It is easy to passively keep on hearing the speaker but it is difficult to actively listen as it requires total attention on the receiver’s part.

4.     Avoiding Talking Over Others

While listening one tends to convey his thoughts as soon as he thinks of them without considering whether the speaker has finished speaking or not, this leads to being perceived as rude and hasty. To avoid this one must let the speaker finish first and then convey their thoughts as clearly as possible.

5.     Saying “Yes” Before Saying “No”

It is essential to not outright reject new ideas and thoughts without listening to them or acting upon them. If one does not hear a topic that appeals to his own ideals or opinions, he tends to reject the new without even listening to it. This process inhabits one’s ability to expand one’s horizons and should not be continued.

Key Takeaways

1. Interpersonal communication skills are the skills one uses while communication with individuals or groups in their everyday lives.
2. Individuals with good interpersonal communication skills often tend to be more successful than people who lack them.
3. Interpersonal skills also include understanding body language, active listening, using gestures to express thoughts and feelings, and also dealing with different attitudes along with verbal communication.

Interpersonal skills include: Active listening, Collaboration, Problem-solving, Conflict resolution, Empathy, Diplomacy, Adaptability, Leadership, Mediation, Patience.

4.     Clarity is one of the most essential requirements of communication.

5.     One should be attentive while listening, ask open ended questions and should be ab It is essential to let the speaker finish talking before conveying one’s own thoughts le to summarize the information provided by the speaker. Only when one listens clearly can one respond to a given message.

6.     While listening one tends to convey his thoughts as soon as he thinks of them without considering whether the speaker has finished speaking or not, this leads to being perceived as rude and hasty.

1.4.3.    Group Communication

Every organization is a group unto itself. A group consists of two or more people who share a common objective and evaluation of themselves and come together to achieve common goals. In other words, a group can be referred to as a collection of people who interact with one another; accept rights and obligations as members and who share a common identity.

Groups can be formal and informal; formal groups are created by the organization with the intent to accomplish its objective, while the informal groups get created spontaneously as soon as the individuals interact with each other.

The groups can be classified on the basis of the structure of the organization. These are:

• Formal Groups
• Informal Groups

The analytical classification of the groups can be done as follows:

1. Primary Groups: The primary group refers to the small social group whose members are closely related to each other and share an enduring relationship. Instances of these groups include family members, friendship groups and highly influential social groups. Here the group members have an intimate relationship with each other and is characterized by face to face association and cooperation.

2.     Secondary Groups: Secondary Groups are more formal groups whose members come together to perform certain tasks and achieve specific outcomes. Here the group members are not emotionally associated with each other and do not get affected by the pain and the pleasure of others. Corporate groups, military, political group, factories, etc. are some examples of secondary groups. Thus, a secondary group is more institutionalized in nature.

3.     Membership Groups: The membership group is the one to which an individual actually belongs to. Sometimes the membership fee is to be given to become a member of certain groups. The club membership is the best example of membership groups.

4.     Reference Groups: A reference group is a type of group with which an individual identify himself and want to become a member of that group. An individual could be a member of several groups, but may not participate in all simultaneously and would like to participate in those groups whose norms are more attractive and gratifying.

5.     Command Groups: A command group is comprised of superiors and subordinates who carry out orders on the basis of their authority within the group. This type of group is determined through the hierarchical chart of the organization. For instance, a marketing manager having the group of sales personnel under his department would fall under this type of group.

6.     Task Groups: Task Group is a group of individuals who come together to accomplish a certain task or a job assigned to them. Generally, these groups are created to capitalize the expertise of different individuals towards the accomplishment of a particular project. Thus, task groups may be formed beyond the lines of a hierarchical chart of the company or organization.

7.     In-groups and Out-groups: The in-group is a type of group mainly composed of the individuals who holds a dominant position in the social functioning. These members could be in the majority and carry prevailing values in the society.

The out-group refers to those individuals who are in the certain instances considered to be less in numbers and often looked upon as marginal or subordinate in the society.

Characteristics of Group Communication

Group communication refers to the emergence of verbal and nonverbal skills, social interaction, and social cognition. It may be verbal or non-verbal.

It is often viewed as a form of communication that is ‘unwritten’ and that people seem to ‘just know.’ Communication in this area includes interaction with peers, family members, friends and colleagues. Group communication behaviours include understanding and using appropriate facial expressions, eye contact, and body language.

Types of group communications include public gatherings, group discussions, conversations between friends and/or colleagues, social and informal meetings, etc.

Group communication has the following characteristics:

(1) Formation through Social Relations: This communication is born out of social relations who mean that it is beyond the restrictions of the organisation. No superior-subordinate relationship figures therein. A more sociable superior can gather much information through this channel.

(2) Two types of Information: Through this type of communication, both information about work and personal lives of different individuals can be collected and transferred.

(3) Unstructured: There is no hierarchical structure for group communication and hence they do not generally follow a pattern of information flow like business communication.

(4) Possibility of Rumour and Distortion: In group communication, there is always a possibility of distortion of the information being transferred. This is known as the grapevine effect where individuals may add or subtract information irrelevant to what was originally stated. Responsibility for the true or false nature of communication does not lie on any individual and, therefore, not much attention is paid to its meaning while communicating.

(5) Quick Relay: Group communication is essentially faster than other types of communication as it transfers information in an informal manner. It is especially useful for announcements when a large number of people are to be addressed in a social setting.

Key Takeaways

1. A group consists of two or more people who share a common objective and evaluation of themselves and come together to achieve common goals.
2. Groups can be formal and informal; formal groups are created by the organization with the intent to accomplish its objective, while the informal groups get created spontaneously as soon as the individuals interact with each other.
3. Group communication refers to the emergence of verbal and nonverbal skills, social interaction, and social cognition. It may be verbal or non-verbal.
4. The primary group refers to the small social group whose members are closely related to each other and share an enduring relationship.
5. Secondary Groups are more formal groups whose members come together to perform certain tasks and achieve specific outcomes.
6. A command group is comprised of superiors and subordinates who carry out orders on the basis of their authority within the group.
7. Types of group communications include public gatherings, group discussions, conversations between friends and/or colleagues, social and informal meetings, etc.
8. In group communication, there is always a possibility of distortion of the information being transferred. This is known as the grapevine effect.
9. Group communication is essentially faster than other types of communication as it transfers information in an informal manner.

1.4.4.    Mass Communication

The concept of Mass Communication refers to the transmission of messages to a large number of varied, heterogenous individuals that are anonymous using technological tools called mass media. The recipients or receivers of the information delivered through the means of Mass communication are referred to as the Audience.

The word ‘Mass’ it the context of Mass Communication studies would mean a large number of individuals who are heterogenous, assorted and anonymous in nature.

C.V Nasimha Reddi defines mas communication as, "Mass Communication can be defined as ‘a process whereby mass-produced messages are transmitted to large, anonymous and heterogenous masses of receivers’. By ‘mass produced’ we mean putting the content or message of mass communication during a form suitable to be distributed to large masses of individuals."

Berger describes mass communication as, "the public transfer of messages through media or technology-driven channels to a large number of recipients from an entity, usually involving some sort of cost or fee (advertising) for the user. The sender often is a person in some large media organization, the messages are public, and the audience tends to be large and varied”

Mass Communication thus includes:

• Print Media- Newspapers, books, Magazines, Journals, Brochures, Pamphlets, Newsletters, documents, etc.
• Electronic Media- Radio, Television, Fax, Movies/ Cinema, Audio-visuals, etc
• New Media- Cell phones, Smart Phones, world wide web, Internet, Social Networking Forums, OTT (Over the top Content) etc.

Characteristics of Mass Communication

Mass communication is quite identical to other types of communication. It involves people, messages, channels, noise, etc. However, it possesses the a few distinct characteristics or features along with common communication characteristics as given below:

• Large number of audiences: The most vital and fundamental characteristic of mass communication is that the audience it addresses is relatively large. Audiences of mass communication may exceed millions to billions and in some cases the whole world.
• Heterogeneous audiences: The audiences to whom the information is exchanged in mass communication aren't just monumental in number but additionally heterogeneous and anonymous in nature. Mass communication addresses to individuals of different ages, religions, sections, and groups without discrimination or bias.
• Scattered audiences: The audiences of mass communication are scattered in an exceedingly vast geographic region and even in the whole world. Therefore, its audiences are secluded from the source of data.
• Impersonal audiences: Messages flow to scattered external audiences in mass communication. Therefore, it is typical that the audiences have no personal relationship with the communicator.
• Common messages: Mass communication delivers identical messages simultaneously to an enormous and diversified audience. Whoever wishes and has the ability to afford the media, can easily receive the message from the mass communications channels.
• Use of mechanical or electronic media: Mass communication relies on mechanical or electronic media to deal with large and diverse audiences. The media include radio, television, films, newspaper, posters, leaflets, etc. Mass communication doesn't occur through face to face or telephonic conversation.
• Rapid and continuous dissemination: Another distinct characteristic of mass communication can be indicated by the speedy and continuous dissemination of the message. Various media of mass communication like radio and tv transmit messages instantly. Numerous copies of films, newspapers, books, and magazines are often distributed across the vast geographical region within a couple of days. Moreover, modern mass communication occurs continuously where messages are sent on a schedule.
• Absence of direct feedback: In mass communication, there's no direct feedback from the receivers. It is mainly because the receivers of mass communication are isolated from the source of data . For this, mass communication is considered mostly one-way communication process. However, in some cases reactions of audiences are often known for their subsequent behaviours.
• Requiring professional help: Professional communicators are required for developing and designing the message of mass communication. Mass communication information exchange media includes reporters, editors, actors, authors, writers, official spokespersons and so on. These professional communicators design, edit and disseminate news, entertainment, drams, advertising messages, public reactions messages and political campaigns.
• Use of modern technology: Modern mass communication requires the utilization of varied specialized modern technologies like a computer, internet network, fax, mobile phones, broadcasting media, printing devices, etc. for effective preparation and distribution of the message.

Key Takeaways

1. Mass Communication refers to the transmission of messages to a large number of varied, heterogenous individuals that are anonymous using technological tools called mass media.

2. C.V Nasimha Reddi defines mas communication as, "Mass Communication can be defined as ‘a process whereby mass-produced messages are transmitted to large, anonymous and heterogenous masses of receivers’. By ‘mass produced’ we mean putting the content or message of mass communication during a form suitable to be distributed to large masses of individuals."

3. Mass Communication media includes: Newspapers, books, Magazines, Journals, Brochures, Pamphlets, Newsletters, documents, Electronic Media- Radio, Television, Fax, Movies/ Cinema, Audio-visuals, Cell phones, Smart Phones, world wide web, Internet, Social Networking Forums, OTT (Over the top Content) etc.

4. The most vital and fundamental characteristic of mass communication is that the audience it addresses is relatively large.

5. Mass communication addresses to individuals of different ages, religions, sections, and groups without discrimination or bias.

6. Mass communication delivers identical messages simultaneously to an enormous and diversified audience.

7. A distinct characteristic of mass communication can be indicated by the speedy and continuous dissemination of the message.

1.4.5.    Verbal and Non-verbal Communication

Verbal communication is the type of communication that includes the utilization of language and words to pass on the intended message. Verbal Communication implies communication though spoken form only. Be that as it may, with regards to forms of communication, verbal communication can be in the spoken or the written structure. Therefore, the verbal form of communication may contain oral as well as written communication as discussed below:

Written Communication: This sort of correspondence includes any sort of trade of data in the composed structure. For instance, messages, emails, letters, reports, SMS, posts via web-based networking media, records, handbooks, banners, flyers, and so on.

Oral Communication: This type of communication is carried out orally through direct or indirect channels. Sound is the only channel through which oral communication can take place. Face to face conversations, chatrooms, voice podcast, telephone conversations are some examples of oral communication.

Verbal communication can be divided into 3 types:

1. Interpersonal communication: This type of communication takes place between two individuals. It can be face-to-face, telephonic or written. The two individuals here will assume the role of sender and receiver in the communication process.
2. Group communication: Here more than two people exchange information and ideas. Press conferences, social gatherings, board meeting, and group discussions are some examples of group communication.
3. Public communication: In this type of communication, one individual addresses a large group of people. This is usually a one-way conversation except for questionnaires and feedback. Election speeches, presentations, public speeches are some examples of public communication.

Characteristics of Verbal Communication

The characteristics of Verbal communication can be stated as follows:

1. Specialization and productivity: for every form of situation, a specialized form of communication is employed. It facilities the birth of creative responses. Typically, new words or sentences are introduced in every form of communication therefore, it is productive in nature.
2. Displacement: Verbal communication incorporates communication regarding remote concepts and situations, speaking about future or past as simply as the present. Language has the potential of dislocating the varied statement and ideas which are stated within the present context at a particular location and it can affect any other place next day.
3. Quickly Diminishing: Vocal sounds have a really limited lifetime, they diminish in no time. As soon as they're transmitted, they must be received otherwise they're going to be lost. Speech signals are characterized with least lifespan among all the communication media.
4. Arbitrariness: Verbal signals are unpredictable in nature which implies any physical properties or traits of concerned things are not possessed by them.
5. Cultural Transmission: Cultures and traditions are the prime determinants which may spread any kind of human language. As any human language may be learnt by any normal individual, this fact reflects the result of cultural spread of language. With some practice, all the languages may be inherited by humans.

Nonverbal communication is the type of communication that is carried out without the use of words. Nonverbal communication is usually utilized as an aid to verbal communication. This type of communication employs gestures, body language, symbols and expressions.

Nonverbal actions office set the tone of the conversation. Nonverbal communication is useful for expressing one’s mood, opinion or reaction. Below are some forms of non-verbal communication:

Physical nonverbal communication: This is the sum of the physically observable. For instance, hand gestures, visual communication, facial expressions, the tone of one’s voice, posture, stance, touch, gaze, and so on. Research shows that nonverbal communication constitutes about 55% of our daily communications

These are subtle signals that are picked up as a part of our biological wiring. for instance, if you rest your head on your palms, it'll mean that you simply are very disappointed or angry. Similarly, other subtle hints will convey your reactions to the person you want to communicate with and vice-versa.

Paralanguage: This type of communication is carried out by the tone of one’s voice. It almost 38% of all the communication that we do every day.

Along with the tone of voice, the style of speaking, voice quality, stress, emotions, or intonation all serve the purpose of expressing intent and reaction. All of these aspects are not verbal.

Visual Communication: This type of communication is carried out with the help of drawings, illustrations, placards, presentations and symbols.

Aesthetic Communication: An important means of communication, however underrated, is art. Some of the strongest messages and inexpressible feelings and emotions have been conveyed through art throughout history.  Art as an effective form of nonverbal communication, has played an important role in influencing people even before documented history.

Appearance: First impressions formed by apparel, grooming, politeness, the colours one wears, all are essential mediums of communication.

Characteristics of Non-verbal Communication

Following are the main characteristics of Non-verbal Communication:

1. Replacing speech

Non-verbal communication is an effective way of communicating without speaking in both formal and informal settings. Not only can one express a lot without words through their expressions and gestures but one can also use non-verbal signs to supplement speaking.

Below are some ways by which non-verbal communication can replace or supplement verbal communication:

1. Using hands, legs feet or the whole body to indicate something.
2. Using gestures with fingers, hands and arms to express a point.
3. Tilting of head such as nodding to say yes or no
4. Using expressions to express joy, sadness, approval, disapproval, frustration etc.

2. Controlling conversation

During a conversation, both parties take turns to speak to express their thoughts. Therefore, if a conversation requires one to take control such as in a debate, non-verbal communication can be used to drag the ball into one's court.

Below are some ways by which one can take control of the conversation using non-verbal communication:

1. Cutting into speech to take control.
2. Using voice modulation and tone to retain control.
3. Pausing between sentences to add dramatic effect.
4. Stopping between sentences to allow others to speak.
5. Leaning forward to show interest and request others to speak.
6. Looking away or leaning backwards to show disinterest or unpreparedness to listen.

3. Impression through Appearance

As Non-verbal communication goes beyond bodily actions to anything that sends subtle messages, one's attire and the way they look in general can affect the audience in many ways. Thus, one's appearance can be a useful tool to create an impact on the listener.

Below are some things which can be used to create a lasting impression:

1. Appropriate attire for a formal or informal setting and proper grooming.
2. Personal accessories such as watches, jewelry, etc.
3. Organization of workspace such as the setup of desks, chairs and computers.
4. Status symbols such as cars, houses etc.

4. Expressing emotion

While Verbal communication is useful for expressing thoughts, Non-verbal communication is useful for expressing emotions and subtle feelings. The tone of one's voice, their expressions and their body language can tell much more about a person than words can. In particular, if one feels that he is unable to express emotions verbally, their words and body language can easily be in contradiction, sending messages that may be interpreted as stress or deceit.

Key Takeaways

1. Verbal communication is the type of communication that includes the utilization of language and words to pass on the intended message.
2. Verbal communication can be Interpersonal, in a group and/or public.
3. Nonverbal communication is the type of communication that is carried out that employs gestures, body language, symbols and expressions for communicating.
4. Non-verbal communication includes the use of paralanguage, sign language, appearance, signs, symbols and presentations
5. Characteristics of verbal communication: Productivity, Displacement, Diminishing, Arbitrariness, Cultural Transmission
6. Characteristics of non-verbal communication include: Replacing speech, controlling conversation, impressing through appearance and expressing emotion.

1.5.       Getting the Message Across: Audience, Subject, Time, Place and Purpose

The biggest challenge in communication is the assumption that it has taken place. In other words, it is not necessary that the message sent by the sender is received with the same intended meaning by the receiver. Communication barriers often distort the message and therefore it is necessary to understand the means of getting your message across while communicating.

Audience

As a communicator, you will deliver official communications to a wide variety of audiences with different levels of technical knowledge: graduate students, graduates, professors, university administrators, and managers and industry colleagues. Think about what your audience already knows about your topic. If you are not sure how to speak to your audience, imagine discussing your topic with a member of the audience. Ideally, you talk to audience members in the field of shared knowledge and lead them to more understanding.

Try to anticipate the feelings of your audience. You should organize your communication in a different way to a friendly audience than you would a stranger or hostile. Typically, friendly listeners can agree to an instant mention of your main point, followed by supporting information. Doubtful audiences, however, respond positively to the production of shared anxiety, followed by a “delayed thesis,” or the main point (Ramage & Bean, 1995, 164).

While communicating, make sure you know what your audience likes the tone of your voice. A thorough understanding of your audience is important for effective communication. Never overestimate an audience’s knowledge, never underestimate their intelligence. The following questions regarding the audience should be kept in mind before actual communication:

• Who are they?
• How many will be there?
• Why are they coming?
• What do they know about the subject?
• Why are they interested in the subject?
• What is their relationship to you?

These questions will help you determine the perfect strategy to communicate. Remember your audience can be: friends, colleagues, clients, unknown people or a combination of all of these. While communicating make eye contact with your audience. This will help you to assess whether they are reluctant, hostile, accepting, interested or simply dull.

One should always begin the communication with a pleasant greeting and a smile. Even though your audience might be well educated, don’t go for words rarely used in conversation, rather than impressing you will end up in confusing them. The more meticulous you are in your choice of words, the greater are the effects of your oral presentation.

Subject

The first thing that must be kept in mind while communicating is the subject. Since content is central to any communication, your subject must be accurate, factual, and well-organized before there comes any kind of ornamentation to the main content. In an ideal world, you would have a thorough knowledge of your subject matter before you start to communicate, but we all know that doesn't happen every time. Our clients and supervisors give us assignments just outside our comfort zones, or we change jobs and have to learn new product lines, or a new issue comes up that we have to quickly learn, digest, and be able to explain to someone else.

For instance, advances in presentation technology (like PowerPoints and multimedia) has made it easier to get distracted from the main content of the presentation. Many times, people spend hours working on slideshows and various little details in those slideshows when what really matters is the actual message. It's pretty easy to understand how this happens. Research is hard if you're working on a new subject. And if it's a familiar subject, you feel like you know it so well you don't even have to prepare.

However, keep in mind the great and famous communicators who shaped world history: Moses; Jesus; Gandhi; Martin Luther King, Jr.; Abraham Lincoln. What stands out about these speeches are the concepts expressed and the words used to express them. Most of these orators lived in a time before any kind of visual aids were available (except for Moses, who had the stone tablets) a lack of visuals forced speakers to focus on the message.

People will say that we live in an MTV-world, where everyone is so accustomed to bright colours and flashy packaging that they can't pay attention to anything else. But remember that glitz without substance is just like a tin-foil necklace--something to be tossed aside and forgotten at the earliest opportunity.

Time and Place

Knowing the correct venue, right time, and right moment for sharing information may be a really critical aspect of good communication. Good communication has much less to do with what you say than how you say it in exact time duration. Communication works best if it takes place at the right place. That could be online for someone within the office, an advertisement at a station for a commuter on their way to work, or in a lifestyle magazine for somebody at home at the weekend. In all these contexts, the buyer is probably going to be in an “information receiving” frame of mind. They might be experiencing the issue at the moment the communication takes place. Communicating at the required time will have a positive impact for the sender from the receiver. When we communicate with the strangers, the primary impression of us will be from our communication. Therefore, the right communication at the correct time will improve our image.

The multi-channel environment has created problems as well as opportunities as consumers switch rapidly between different digital and offline channels. We have a matter of seconds to grab an individual's attention and incite from them a compelling reason to reply. If decide on a relevant place to communicate, it needs to be reinforced with a relevant message. That message must be more interesting than their immediate surroundings.

The right time might be multiple times. Communicators can build up a series of trigger dates when consumers are most receptive. It can be a birthday, national event, or public holiday. The right time also means the communication must be more interesting than the task they are currently engaged in.

The right time is just as important. The best communicators know how to time what they assert to coincide with when their audience is most receptive. Whether that's in online or offline conversations, it makes no difference. When someone needs information or when they face an issue, they require a good response – fast. The response is about listening and understanding first. Then it is important to propose practical solutions and take ownership for solving the issue, again, at the right time.

Purpose

The purpose of communication is a key factor in deciding the content and style of communication. Depending upon your purpose – to inform, to analyse, or to persuade – you can create a communication that will elicit your required response from the audience and eliminate possibilities of unexpected output from them.

Below are some key points one must keep in mind while having a purposeful communication:

What's the Purpose of Your Communication?

1. Specific. The objectives of communication must be precise, if they are too general or unspecific you might digress from the central idea of the communication.
2. Measurable. They only way to know if you have achieved the purpose of your communication is by measuring it. Therefore, it is essential to set measurable goals and not some far-fetched wayward objective.
3. Achievable. A good communication is made with the audience in mind. The goals of communication should always be achievable with regards to the audience. If the goals are too distant the communication might fail to make an impact on the audience.
4. Relevant. The communication should be relevant to your audience and locale. It should be perfectly understood by every member of the audience.
5. Time. Is your purpose achievable in the available time? This is because a fifteen-minute communication might be too short for a detailed understanding of a new product or a new piece of technology. But it might be just sufficient enough to explain a new procedure to a well experienced audience.

Key Takeaways

1. The biggest challenge in communication is the assumption that it has taken place. In other words, it is not necessary that the message sent by the sender is received with the same intended meaning by the receiver.
2. The following questions regarding the audience should be kept in mind before actual communication:

• Who are they?
• How many will be there?
• Why are they coming?
• What do they know about the subject?
• Why are they interested in the subject?
• What is their relationship to you?

3.     Since content is central to any communication, your subject must be accurate, factual, and well-organized before there comes any kind of ornamentation to the main content.

4.     Knowing the correct venue, right time, and right moment for sharing information may be a really critical aspect of good communication.

5.     Communication works be the multi-channel environment has created problems as well as opportunities as consumers switch rapidly between different digital and offline channels.

6.     The purpose of communication is a key factor in deciding the content and style of communication.

7.     The purpose of communication should be: Specific, measurable, achievable, relevant and timely.

1.6.       Different Ways of Communicating: Narrative, Description, Exposition and Argument, Speaking and Writing

1.6.1.    Narrative

Narrative communication is a way of communicating through telling stories. The stories are written or told and are named narratives. Most often, narratives are used to recount a story or in other cases to express an opinion or give information to circumscribe a situation like e.g. Past events from the perspective of the storyteller. This use of narrative communication may be more effective than enumerating facts and statistics, because it provides an experience people can understand and share. Narrative communication is one way, as in a speaker addressing an audience.

The first step in writing an outstanding narrative essay is learning the narrative essay definition. There is no universal definition of narrative essay simply because of how broad and all-encompassing this genre of writing is.

However, when asked to define narrative essay, most academic writers will say that it’s a piece of writing telling a story using a variety of literary device. The narrative essay format is one of the most personal ones in academic writing, but it also requires you to have extensive knowledge of the writing process, not just rely on your own experiences.

Below are the steps involved in writing a narrative essay:

Choosing the Topic:

Now that you know what a narrative essay is, you probably feel ready to move on to the writing process. But before you find out how to write narrative essay, you need to decide what to write about. In other words, you need to pick your narrative essay topic.

Good narrative essay topics always combine proximity to your own interests and the ability to fit into the interests of your audience. Your narrative essay topic should be close to your own experience, but it also needs to be relevant to what your potential audience wants to see.

Because it can be very difficult to cover a broad topic in the limited narrative essay format, the best narrative essay topics are rather narrow. Another sign of a well-chosen narrative essay topic is when you can barely find any relevant information about it on the internet — then your narrative essay is guaranteed to be original and interesting to the public.

Constructing the essay:

Any “How to write a narrative essay step by step” guide will tell you that you need to start your writing process with an outline. The outline of a narrative essay usually follows the standard five-paragraph structure, but the nature of the paragraphs is slightly different from other types of essays.

1. Introduction

How can one start a narrative essay that will keep the reader interested until the last word? Think of the introduction to your narrative essay as a setup to a great story. The first sentence of your introduction should be a hook — a particularly interesting anecdote or quote that will set the tone for your story. The remaining part of the narrative essay introduction should be dedicated to why you believe this story is so significant and what the readers will be able to take from it. Always try to finish the introduction part of the essay with a strong thesis statement that will also serve as the foundation for the rest of the essay.

2.     Body paragraphs

The three or more body paragraphs are where your main story will take place. In a typical narrative essay outline, the body paragraphs carry most of the significance and should be written particularly carefully if you want your essay to shine.

Each paragraph of the body part of your narrative essay should refer to a separate idea to help readers understand your story better. At the same time, those paragraphs and ideas need to be closely connected to one another and follow a specific order to highlight the logic of the narrative. Most writers prefer the chronological order of events, as it’s easy not to miss anything when you are using this narrative model.

Not every event from your life is filled with interesting and memorable moments, but since you need to make your writing more appealing to the readers, you should definitely include a twist or other unexpected plot device that will spice up your narrative and will be resolved by the end of the essay.

3.     Conclusion

The conclusion to your narrative essay is not only the final part of your writing, but also the part that will likely stick with the readers for a long time, so make sure every word of it counts. The conclusion should begin by formulating a concise summary of the events included in the essay.

Finish the conclusion by offering one final thought to your readers. Whether it’s your reflection on what the event in question meant for you or your version of how the event could have gone differently, it should be something that readers will think about again and again after reading your paper.

Below are some fundamental rules that must be followed while writing a narrative essay:

1. Use the first-person narrative. Unlike many other types of essays, the format of a narrative essay encourages the use of the “I” pronoun. That way, you will make the story more personal and relatable for your audience.
2. The language of your essay should be more relaxed. It doesn’t need to be too colloquial, but using one or two informal constructions or words that characterize you as a person will help you create a smooth narrative.
3. A narrative essay doesn’t call for citations and references. The narrative is based on your own life and experience, which means there are unlikely any relevant materials to support your writing.
4. Your narrative essay needs to contain just the right number of details. Too little details can hurt the credibility of your essay, and too many details may eventually make your readers feel bored.

1.6.2.    Descriptive

Description is a tool that writers use to keep things live for their readers, to make sure their audience is fully immersed in the words on the page. Every time you tell someone a story, or when you tell someone something, you either use the description or you don't know it. The description is basically "I have a blue car" or "That beautiful baby" or "Flowers soften the sun's golden rays and start showing their bright colours". Descriptive words are used to provide more detail and provide more insight. In fact, commentary is a tool that allows many authors (and speakers) to show up instead of just saying, and enabling our readers to interpret our material.

There are two basic types of Objective and Subjective. The meaning of purpose is shown in the first two examples above; Provides a true account of the item. Co-explanation provides a personal examination of the details by selecting specific words and phrases, such as clarifying the colours in the example above. Vibration not only provides information on colours, but also gives the idea or judgment of the value in the description. Many interpretations provide a mixture of both, giving the audience an idea of ​​the emotional state of the subject being described.

Sensory details

However, every possible explanation uses sensory information as its basis. These are the five senses that attract attention, smell, sound, taste and touch. In fact, different studies prioritize different sensory details and do not require the use of all five senses for all subjects. We all recognize the importance of looking at detail as a tool, but we don't always know how important other details of interest are. However, think about how often you smell something and immediately think of something or someone else. You can smell freshly baked bread and think of your grandmother's kitchen or popcorn and think of theatre. Listening to a phrase can make you think of an old friend or acquaintance. You can associate a certain kind of garment with the clothes you had as a child. When you take a bite of pepperoni you are reminded of your youthful parties. Sensory information actually plays a major role in keeping the narrative alive.

Using Concrete description:

Try to use specific, concrete definitions. For example, an author can write a beautiful description of a tree. However, he is very handsome. Instead, the concrete or modifier resistor will be strong and provide maximum impact. The reader needs image details to build up their heads, concepts that don't seem like a good analogue for a real-world analogue.

Here is a description of the tree: "The sun's rays illuminated the leaves around the rain, just as the afternoon sky dropped in the evening." The fine features of the tree are "shown" in concrete details rather than simply being pulled out. This gives the reader the illusion of an immediate experience, as opposed to a variety of dictionaries.

Similes and Metaphors:
One way to add descriptive language is to use similes and metaphors, to create an image in the readers' heads by comparing two objects with each other. Metaphors and metaphors help to make connections between two concepts, concepts, or objects that clarify or give new meaning.

A simile to compare using words like or. Usually two different things are compared. For example, bread was as dry as bone. Matching involves a piece of bread that is thick and white than a solid and white bone. The bones are usually dry, and so is the bread. These same characteristics are what make the metaphor successful.

A metaphor says one thing is something else. It's a comparison, but it does NOT use it as a comparison or to make comparisons. For example, my grandmother is an open book. Comparing this means that my grandmother is full of information she willingly shares with others.

To make an simile or metaphor, point to something like the sun, a tree, or a river, or an idea such as love, peace or wrath. Then think of something else with the same features. Decide whether the words "like" or "as" will help make the connection more understandable. An appropriate metaphor or metaphor will enable the reader to view both objects in a new way.

By adding metaphors and metaphors to the definition sheet, the author can attract readers' thinking and make writing more interesting to read. Icons and metaphors add spice to the descriptions. However, many pieces come in the form of metaphors and metaphors, so try to create comparisons specific to your particular topic.

The Structure of a Descriptive Essay

Descriptive essays often describe a person, place, or thing that uses sensitive information. The structure of the descriptive text is more flexible than other filtering methods. The introduction of a descriptive article should set the tone and point of the essay. The thesis should convey the author's general opinion of the person, place, or thing described in the body paragraphs.

Article organization can better track spatial order, classification of ideas according to physical characteristics or appearance. Depending on the author's description, the movement can move from top to bottom, left to right, near and far, warm, cold, inviting, and so on.

Example, if the theme was the customer's kitchen during the renovation, you could start heading to one side of the room and then slowly to the other side, explaining materials, cabinetry, and so on. Or, you can choose to start with the old kitchen remnants and move on to new installations. Maybe start at the bottom and climb up to the roof.

Writing a Description

In order to write an essay, you need to pick a topic and decide how to make that topic clearly in your audience. If the title of a piece is simply a description of a specific area, you should decide which elements of that area, when outlined in the text, will be most appealing to your audience. The first step in any descriptive writing is to choose a topic and start making a thesis statement. You may choose to specify a specific location.

Thesis

Thesis Text Statement

Although Minnesota may seem attractive and cold to outsiders, the natives of the state find it a great place to live.
We can see from this thesis statement that the author will try to show the features of Minnesota that make it a great place to live. After defining a thesis statement, you should come up with a list of logical words that provide visual information and support the template. You can start by thinking about the five senses. What does your particular place look like, smell, feel, taste and feel? How can you best describe these senses so that the reader can feel how they feel? By organizing elements of descriptive language into easy to manage categories, such as the five senses, you are able to get involved directly in what elements of meaning are most useful.

Presentation Order

The author in this case may choose to introduce some of Minnesota's best features in terms of seasonal and climate change. Details can be revealed in order, early spring and winter travel, highlighting the features of each season that strongly support the template, that Minnesota is a great place to live.

Before starting the essay, give some thought to your audience. Who will read the essay, and how would you like to impact the readers? Awareness of the audience is important in choosing the level of behaviour you take with your writing. Knowing your audience will also help you distinguish information that should be included in your entire article. Assume that your audience knows very little or nothing about your subject matter, and includes details that may seem obvious to you.

Audience

Example Audience: In this particular article, the author wants to show an outsider why Minnesota's indigenous people are so happy to live there. The article should help break the barriers of those outside with the cold Minnesota climate and the visible drop. Because this story is designed for those who do not live in Minnesota, and probably never did, it is important to include information on a condition that may be obvious to the native.

With the preparation work complete, now is the time to start writing your essay. Use your thesis statement to start building the first paragraph. The introduction should lay the groundwork for your essay, and the thesis statement should state its purpose.

Introduction

Example: Many who have not been to the state of Minnesota only hear about its cold weather and disappointing reputation. They are sure to miss the great opportunities Minnesota offers. Each season offers a unique feel familiar to the Minnesota indigenous people and visitors and they love it. Although Minnesota may seem attractive and cold to outsiders, the natives of the state find it a great place to live.

When the introduction is complete, it's time to start building up the body parts of your article. Each body part should have a central theme by itself, and the theme must be expressed in the topic sentence. As a result, each sentence of the paragraph should coincide with and support the topic sentence. Physical categories are where most information should be provided. When writing the first draft of your essay, include as much detail as possible. You can always remove those that do not use the server again when reviewing your draft. In the case of the Minnesota environmental issue, we decided to set up body categories depending on the season, the beginning of spring.

The body

Example: Spring in Minnesota brings new life to the state after a long winter. The rain cleanses the landscape, leaving its fresh scent for all to enjoy. The flowers brighten up the golden sun's rays and begin to show their vibrant colors. Early birds can be seen and heard throughout the forest and in the fields, recounting their stories in beautiful songs. The pools begin to show their glossy finish as the ice melts slowly under the heat of the season.

Once the body parts are complete, it's time to finish the story and finish. The conclusion should come to a conclusion based on what has been posted throughout the body of the story. You need to get back to the idea, but not to the extreme. The conclusion should give the reader a final idea of ​​what it means to tell a story. Remember that nothing new should be presented in the conclusion, and the way it is presented should give the reader a sense of the end.

Conclusion

Example: The variety of activities and different times available in Minnesota reveals the various advantages of this condition. As one looks at the benefits of each season, it becomes clear why many indigenous Minnesota are satisfied with their homes. Minnesota is a wonderful place to live.

Once the essay is done, it's time to re-read and revise your article (and see review sections of this book). Read your draft first and identify all the descriptive words you used. If possible, go back and add more after what you have already used in the story. If you can, read your friend aloud and tell him which pictures are clearer and which pictures need further improvement. Replace any cloud-based images with additional meaning. Also, check to see if your descriptions use all five senses: sound, smell, texture, sight, and taste. Repeat these steps as many times as you can until you are happy with your product.

Key points

• Paragraphs should explain something clearly to the reader using strong hearing details.
• Sensitivity information attracts five human senses: sight, sound, smell, taste and touch.
• The essay should start with a great idea of ​​a person, place, or thing.

1.6.3.    Exposition

An expository essay is a piece of writing where the author’s job is to introduce the audience to a particular concept.

How are persuasive essays different from expository essays?

The big and key difference between an expository essay and a persuasive essay is that the expository essay does not require the author to address his personal attitude to the subject, whereas writing a persuasive essay means expressing an opinion and attempting to convince the audience that it’s the only possibly correct opinion.

Is an argumentative essay an expository essay?

An argumentative essay requires the author to have a personal opinion about the subject matter and then support it with compelling arguments. The writer of an expository essay does not need to convince the readers of anything — he simply needs to present the facts.

Main Types of Expository Essays

After learning the expository essay definition, it’s easy to think that this written assignment is pretty straightforward and can be mastered very quickly. That is why many students are surprised to learn that there are actually six main types of expository essays that are commonly used in modern schools:

1. Definition essay, where the writer attempts to give a more precise definition to a concept that has been already defined by other scholars;
2. Classification essay, where the writer takes a complete concept and breaks it down into groups and pieces;
3. Problem and solution essay, which requires the writer to define a problem and then offer a solution that has the highest chance of solving the problem;
4. Cause and effect essay, where the writer needs to cover the reasons for the subject in question happening and the possible results of the event;
5. Process essay, also known as the “how-to essay”, where the writer describes the steps in a particular procedure that will lead to the desired result;
6. Comparison and contrast essay, where the writer compares two subjects and defines their differences and similarities.

What is the purpose of an expository essay?

On paper, the assignment of writing an expository essay seems easy, but, as we have already established, there are six types and even more variations of expository essays that you may encounter throughout your academic journey.

The purpose of an expository essay, in general, is to give the readers a detailed introduction of the subject of the paper, but in reality, your job can be different. Always carefully check the writing prompt to see which type of essay you are required to write — only then will you be able to choose the appropriate expository essay format, structure, and content.

Below are the steps involved in writing an expository essay:

1. Choosing a topic

In some cases, you will be given the topic for your essay by your professor, but students are also often asked to choose their own topic for their essay. If you want the readers to be touched by your writing, it’s important to choose a topic you are personally passionate about.

Ideally, the topic should be also closely connected to the current state of the world and society — those topics always resonate with the public and make your writing even more interesting. Finally, in order to write a convincing essay, you should pick a topic you know well even without outside sources.

2.     Expository essay outline

After seeing some expository essay examples for college or high school, you will be relieved to know that the outline of a typical expository essay is no different from the outline of most other essays you have already written.

Nearly every expository essay outline follows the classic five-paragraph structure, which includes an introduction, three body paragraphs, and a conclusion. The number of body paragraphs can be higher or lower than that, but the order and content of the chapters remain the same.

3.     Introduction

The purpose of the introduction to your expository essay is to unveil the topic of the paper to your audience, explain your reasons for choosing this particular subject, and to introduce the thesis statement. The thesis statement should be brief and strong, as you will refer to it several times throughout the paper.

4.     Body paragraphs

The body paragraphs of your expository essay will further expand the topic with the help of evidence. The evidence can come in different forms, including statistics, quotes, and results of your research. It’s important to remember that each body paragraph should be dedicated to a separate idea, so that the readers don’t have a hard time jumping from one statement to another.

5.     Conclusion

In your conclusion, there is no need to offer any new facts or information to the audience. Instead, you should repeat your thesis statement and offer a brief summary of the body paragraphs to convince the readers that you presented the most complete exploration of the subject.

Expository essay do’s and don’ts

As with most challenges in student life, there is a right and wrong way to write an expository essay. To increase your chances of writing a strong paper, check out some do’s and don’ts of how to write an expository essay:

Do:

• Use the strongest evidence you have available;
• Only use evidence that comes from credible sources;
• Take a critical look at your writing to detect potential counterarguments and your response to them.

Don’t:

• Simply repeat your expository essay introduction in the conclusion;
• Use your own experience as evidence;
• Make your essay wordy simply to meet the word count.

Questions to ask when writing your expository essay

Now that you know how to start an expository essay, it will also be appropriate to learn how to finish it the right way. After you have perfected your final draft, it is time to give your essay the last check by asking the following five questions to yourself:

• Have I chosen a topic that will resonate with the public?
• Have I only used relevant evidence or can some of it be excluded without damaging the integrity of the essay?
• Did I create a logical flow of the narrative or is my essay all over the place?
• Did my evidence come from reliable sources?
• Was I thorough when showing the different aspects of the subject?

1.6.4.    Argument

An argumentative essay is a type of essay where the writer’s objective is to convince the reader that his opinion is correct by providing compelling arguments backed up by strong evidence.

An argumentative essay follows the same format as other academic essays. However, it is often believed that writing an argumentative essay is as easy as simply voicing your opinion. In reality, even though a personal opinion is an important part of the essay, it’s the arguments and evidence that make the work complete.

What is the primary focus in an Argumentative Essay?

When learning how to write argumentative essay, it’s important to remember that the focus and most vital point of an argumentative essay is the argument itself. The rest of the paper, including the introduction, conclusion, and most of the body paragraphs, are simply there to set the context for the subject of the essay and offer support to the argument.

The argument of the argumentative essay is the backbone of the paper that holds it together. You should first state your main argument right in the introduction of the essay and then refer to it several times in the paper, so make sure to make it clear, concise, and able to resonate with the audience.

Structuring an Argumentative Essay

A good argumentative essay outline should help the readers navigate through your narrative, and also allow you to always stay on point even when your ideas momentarily take you elsewhere.  A typical argumentative essay employs a 5-paragraph structure just like other academic essays and contains an introduction, three body paragraphs, and a conclusion. Below are the steps of writing a good argumentative essay:

Introduction

The introduction to your argumentative essay must be just one paragraph long, but it must also be very clear and concise. The purpose of the argumentative essay introduction is to familiarise the readers with the concept of the subject and your position. In the first paragraph of your argumentative essay, you will provide a brief background of the problem, how common it is, how old it is, and how well it has been researched. It’s advisable to choose an under-researched argumentative essay topic and tell your readers something new.

The final sentence of your introduction must always contain the thesis statement. This is exactly where your main argument can be found. The thesis should reflect your own perspective towards the main subject of the paper.

Body paragraphs

There are three body paragraphs in a typical argumentative essay, and each of those paragraphs should offer a separate piece of reasons why you believe your argument is the correct one. Be careful not to reiterate the same point in different body paragraphs — that way, you won’t be able to paint a complete picture for your readers.

The topic sentence should be the starting point of each paragraph. This topic sentence should introduce a new evidence in support for your argument. You should then follow the topic sentence with various instances of evidence including but not limited to statistics, research results, examples, studies, and citations.

Offer a counterargument at the end of each body paragraph and explain why you disagree with it using strong evidence supporting your point of view. When it comes to an argumentative essay, it’s always better to cover the subject from every angle.

Conclusion

A conclusion should be a summary of all the ideas previously discussed in the body but it should not introduce any new ideas. Ideally, after finishing the essay, the readers must a sense of closure and at the same time they must feel the urge to explore the topic even further.

You can make your argumentative essay conclusion even more memorable, by including a personal story or make your writing more personal in another way. Readers usually respond well to those anecdotes and are likely to pay more attention to your writing.

Questions to Ask When Finishing Your Argumentative Essay

At the final stage of your writing process, it’s a good idea to give your essay a critical look to see what can be changed and improve about your writing to make it easier to prove your point to the audience. Use the following 5 questions to determine whether you did a good job with your argumentative essay or it still needs some work:

• Are all my arguments and topic sentences clear enough?
• Will it be easy for the readers to follow the logical flow of my writing?
• Is my structure and word choice appropriate?
• Have I provided enough evidence support for my argument?
• How likely are the readers to be convinced in my point of view?

1.6.5.    Speaking and Writing

Spoken Communication

This type of communication is carried out orally through direct or indirect channels. Sound is the only channel through which oral communication can take place. Face to face conversations, chatrooms, voice podcast, telephone conversations are some examples of oral communication.

Below are some types spoken communication:

Conversations and Their Types

Conversations are a tool and a vehicle for expressing ideas, feelings and experiences are very important. It's a great sight and a blessing and is one of the most important ways of preserving and expanding knowledge. One can better reveal one's mind, intentions, ideas, purpose and personality through word of mouth or speech. The man is known by his words and expressions. Speech expresses the inner man’s personality, thoughts and feelings.

Conversation is also participation, cooperation and communication. These are the best ways to communicate with a talk and the oldest and richest. Our oldest and most important religious and spiritual activities have been through oral communication, discussions and discussions. The promotion of information is vital to success, social interaction, business, learning and education. In a broad and general sense, the discussion is very comprehensive and includes speech, talk and public discourse. In conversation a talk is put on three-to-three people but in an interview or lecture it reaches a lot of people who make up a large audience.

In addition, talking is more or less an option. While conversation is about intimacy, education, equal participation, warmth, respect, etc. Good and pleasant conversation is an art in which the heart and mind are completely involved. It is respectful, fun, smart, endearing and intimate. Conversational art is crucial to influencing people to make friends, increase following and achieve success. It can be cultivated and developed. It is a great way to be caught by training, practice, patience and persistence.

The Four Types of Conversations: Debate, Dialogue, Discourse, and Diatribe:
When you talk to someone, it helps to know what kind of conversation you are having. You can do that depending on the direction of the communication (a one-way street or two) tone / purpose (competition or collaboration).

When you talk to one, you talk to somebody, rather than to somebody. When in a two-way conversation, participants listen and speak. In a competitive discussion, people are more concerned about their opinion, and in collaborative discussions participants are more inclined to view everyone involved.

Based on understanding and voice, I have organized the discussion into four types: debate, dialogue, speech and diatribe.

• Debate is a competitive, two-way conversation. The goal is to win an argument or to convince someone, such as a participant or a sidekick.
• Dialogue is a collaborative, two-way conversation. The role of the participants is to exchange information and build relationships with others.
• Discourse is a collaborative, harmonious conversation. The purpose is to bring information from the speaker / author to the audience / readers.
• Diatribe is a competitive and one-way conversation. The goal is to express feelings, to attack those who disagree with you, and / or to include those with the same opinion.
   

To highlight the differences between these types of conversations, let's use politics as an example:

• Debate: two family members from opposite sides of the political spectrum argue for politics.
• Dialogue: In the voting the two voters talk to each other about who they will vote for.
• Discourse: a professor who gives lectures on international affairs.
• Diatribe: An unassuming voter who goes public with the election results.
  It is important to know what kind of conversation you are in, because that is what determines the purpose of the conversation. If you can see the purpose, you can better speak to the heart of that conversation. However, if you do not see the conversation clearly, you can fall into the traps of change.

Written Communication

This sort of correspondence includes any sort of trade of data in the composed structure. For instance, messages, emails, letters, reports, SMS, posts via web-based networking media, records, handbooks, banners, flyers, and so on.

Below are some common written communication forms:

Essay Writing

There are many types of essays and papers you can write as a student. The content and length of the essay varies depending on your level, subject of study, and the requirements of a particular course.

However, many subject bodies share the same goal. They aim to convince students of a position or perspective through informed, evidence-based, analytical and interpretive debates.

In addition, every story has an introduction, body and ending that always do the same or few things.

Letter Writing

Writing letters is an art and a strategy. The latter can be followed by following formal meetings; the former must be nurtured with the care and deepest interest of man. The letters are generally divided into the following four categories: friendly or informal letters, business letters; invitations and responses, as well as the use of functions.

Letters can be formal or informal. They include:

• Business letters
• Job application letter
• Sales & credit letters
• Letters of enquiry
• Letters of quotation
• Order letters
• Claim and adjustment letters
• D.O. Letters
• Government letters
• Letters to authorities

Report Writing

The success of a business or industrial organization lies in doing its job for this purpose, gathering information and passing it on to those who need it is important. In the broader collection and transfer of information is happening all the time in every area of ​​formal life. So scientists, working brokers, testers, journalists, and various professionals, government and private organizations are asked to write and report to their management on important topics at the institution or the person involved.

Reports can be as short as a few sentences and as long as a few large pages. Although reports can be verbal and informal, here we are concerned with written and formal reports.

Reports can be of various types such as:

• Memo Report
• Progress Report
• Status Report
• Survey Report
• Trip Report
• Complaint Report
• Joining Report
• Laboratory Report

Business writing deals with different types of documents and documentation, including report and policy writing. It is vital to multiple fields of human endeavour including science, technology, business, and industry. Different types of business communication includes:

1. Technical Documentation: Examples of conventional technical documentation include repair manuals, owner manuals, maintenance guidelines, engineering specifications, technical manuals, and reference works. This type of technical writing is aimed at a specific audience, so the writer needs to be aware of the reader's comprehension level and have detailed knowledge regarding the subject she's writing about.

2.     Technical Reports: In addition to instructions and guidelines, many technical products include information on the product's history, evolution, or structural or operational revisions. Technical writers organize the information and edit it for brevity and accuracy.

3.     Feasibility Studies and Corporate Reports: Feasibility studies and corporate reports (such as annual financial reports) require precise research and presentation of facts that can be easily comprehended by several levels of employees, executives, and shareholders. These reports normally include graphs and charts for comparative purposes in the areas of economics, timelines, and social or business practicality along with narratives to explain the visual aids.

4.     Research Results: Products such as pharmaceuticals or medical devices are accompanied by documentation of findings and interpretations based on laboratory testing or field research. Exemplary attention to detail is vital to the presentation of research results since this type of technical writing frequently includes facts on drug interactions, side effects, and other important health-related concerns.

5.     Policies and Procedures: Both large and small companies have policy and procedures guidelines to govern their organization and employee handbooks to help protect themselves against lawsuits from employees who might claim they weren't aware of certain rules and regulations. Technical writers present these instructions in clear, non-discriminatory terms and understandable language.

6.     Business Plans: These documents require highly technical financial and operational research. They include projections on expenditures, possible losses, and profit margins along with a competitive analysis, marketing strategies, and detailed background information on the professional background and financial stability of the owner(s).

7.     White Papers: White papers are guides to making decisions and solving problems that are created by an organization for an external audience. They explore specific problems, presenting authoritative solutions that readers are encouraged to adopt. White papers are used in many industries and business types to explain an issue and to recommend a particular solution, product, technology, or methodology.

8.     Case Studies: Case studies provide written analyses of real-life situations. They can be about individuals, groups, organizations, clinical practices, decisions, or events which reflect study of the subject over a defined period. They attempt to identify patterns in data about the topic from which generalizations can be made and trends can be identified. Case studies often appear in scientific journals, though they also have their place in business and industry.

9.     Literature Reviews: A literature review can be either a standalone document or included as part of a primary report. They summarize and provide details about previously conducted research and findings on a topic, emphasizing research milestones, conflicting results, and what remains to be discovered through further research.

10. Proposals: Proposals are specifically written as a call to action to get an individual or a group to do something. Real life examples include proposals to receive grants, do projects, purchase products, or consider specific improvements to an organization, product, methodology, or service.

Key Takeaways

1. An expository essay is a piece of writing where the author’s job is to introduce the audience to a particular concept.
2. A narrative essay is a piece of writing telling a story using a variety of literary device. The narrative essay format is one of the most personal ones in academic writing, but it also requires you to have extensive knowledge of the writing process, not just rely on your own experiences.
3. Descriptive essays often describe a person, place, or thing that uses sensitive information. Description is a tool that writers use to keep things live for their readers, to make sure their audience is fully immersed in the words on the page.
4. There are two basic types of descriptions: Objective and Subjective.
5. All essays consist of three main elements:

• The introduction: includes the topic sentence and main points to be detailed in the body
• The body: includes the main content of the essay and all the facts, statistics and information related to that content
• The conclusion: includes a summation of the information given in the body. No new information regarding the topic is provided here.

6.     Oral communication is carried out orally through direct or indirect channels. Sound is the only channel through which oral communication can take place.

7.     Examples of oral communication include face to face conversations, chatrooms, voice podcast, telephone conversations.

8.     Conversations are a tool and a vehicle for expressing ideas, feelings and experiences are very important. Conversation is also participation, cooperation and communication.

9.     Debate is a competitive, two-way conversation. The goal is to win an argument or to convince someone.

10. Dialogue is a collaborative, two-way conversation. The role of the participants is to exchange information and build relationships with others.

11. Discourse is a collaborative, harmonious conversation. The purpose is to bring information from the speaker / author to the audience / readers.

12. Diatribe is a competitive and one-way conversation. The goal is to express feelings, to attack those who disagree with you, and / or to include those with the same opinion.

13. Written correspondence includes any sort of trade of data in the composed structure. For instance, messages, emails, letters, reports, SMS, posts via web-based networking media, records, handbooks, banners, flyers, and so on.

14. The essay writing process consists of three stages: preparation, writing and revision.

15. Letters are generally divided into the following four categories: friendly or informal letters, business letters; invitations and responses, as well as the use of functions.

16. Business communication writing refers to creation of documents, user guides and other written materials for technical products and services

17. Business communication involves drafting and writing technical communications used in occupational fields.

18. Business communication encompasses the following fields: Engineering, Computer software and hardware, Robotics, Chemistry, Finance, Consumer electronics, Forestry, Aeronautics, Medical and healthcare, Biotechnology

19. Business writing includes: Technical documentation, technical reports, feasibility study and corporate reports, research results, policies and procedures, business plans, white papers, case studies, literary reviews, proposals etc.

20. Research skills, technical proficiency (including vocabulary), visual presentation skills and communication skills are integral requirements for perfecting business communication.

References

1. Oxford Guide to writing and speaking, John Seely, O.U.P
2. A Communicative Grammar of English, Leech, G.N. And Jan Svartvik
3. Better English Pronunciation, J.O O’ Corner, Cambridge.
4. Effective Technical Communication, M.Asraf Rizvi, Tata McGraw Hill
5. Technical Communication Today, Bovea et al. Pearson.