Unit IV
Urbanisation and Environment
Concept of urbanization
Some of the important concepts of urbanization are:
Urban area: According to the United Nations, there are three types of regions, the administrative, economic and ecological urban areas are population clusters, and the inhabitants live in closely adjacent structures. Three departmentscluster of populations with formal boundaries and administrative functions.
Areas with fixed boundaries and some form of local government.
Minor civil divisions such as communities with fixed boundaries and with or without local government
Urban place: The location of a city is the boundary of the territory as a city, regardless of the boundary. It is determined by the specific characteristics of the urban population. The United Nations suggests that each country needs to decide which regions are cities and which regions are rural. City locations must have a population of 20,000 or more.
Urban agglomeration: Agglutination means a mass of a group. Urban agglomeration is an additional geographical unit that includes multiple regions. Cities or towns are often part of an agglomeration of cities.
Urban population: Urban population means the population or people who live in an urban area.
Urban growth: Urban growth is growth in the place of the city. It is an increase in the urban population.
Urbanism: Urbanism is used for lifestyles related to urban life. Important features of urban life are individualism, inhuman relations, transportation and communication, complex life and better technical facilities.
Urbanization: According to Redfield, urbanization is used to explain the size, density, and variability of population within scientific sites. Therefore, urbanization is the process of population concentration in urban areas.
Problems of migration and urban environment
Migration
People who move from one place to another in search of work or housing are called immigrants. In most cases, migrants are unskilled and uneducated and are usually employed as day labourers (workers paid at the end of the day for services). With daily bets, you don't get enough money for your family to survive and you suffer from many problems such as diet, hygiene, hygiene, and a good place to live.
Impact of migration
Migration is becoming a very important issue for urban life. Many opportunities and attractions in big cities attract many people to them. Migration has both positive and negative effects on the lives of migrants.
(A) Positive impact
• Unemployment is reduced and other people recover job opportunities.
• Migration helps improve people's quality of life.
• Learning new cultures, customs and languages can help improve people's social lives and improve their brotherhood.
• The migration of skilled workers will lead to greater economic growth in the region.
• Children get better opportunities in higher education.
• Population density will decline and fertility will decline.
(B) Negative impact
• Loss of one of her from rural areas, production levels and impact on rural development.
• The influx of workers into urban areas intensifies competition for jobs, homes and school facilities.
• A large population puts undue pressure on natural resources, equipment and services.
• It is difficult for villagers to live in urban areas because there is no natural environment and the air is not clear. They have to pay all the costs.
• Population distribution is not uniform in India because migration changes the population of the place.
• Many migrants are completely illiterate and uneducated, making them unsuitable for most jobs, as well as lacking basic knowledge and living skills.
• Poverty prevents them from living a normal and healthy life.
• Children growing up in poverty do not have access to proper nutrition, education, or health.
• Migration has increased urban slums and increased problems such as unsanitary conditions, crime and pollution.
Urbanization Issues and Problems:
Some scholars say that the process of urbanization brings many benefits to financial growth, business expansion, social and cultural integration, resource-rich services, and resource utilization. I think. However, with urbanization, some problems have arisen. These include:
- Rapid Urbanization Rate: It has been observed that the rapid urbanization rate, which is increasing every year, requires further growth of new areas for residential, social equipment, commercial and other urban land use. .. However, the lack of clear urban boundaries has led to the formation of urban slumps that erode environmentally sensitive areas, major agricultural areas and undeveloped areas (TCPD, 2006). In addition, high demand for land use in strategic areas has also led to fluctuations in land use. These situations have caused a variety of urbanization problems, including environmental pollution, traffic congestion, depletion of green spaces, and poor quality of urban life.
- Deterioration of environmental quality: Urbanization is deteriorating the environment, especially water, air and noise. The influx of population into urban areas is increasing, and the demand for facilities such as housing is increasing. In illegal factories and houses with poor infrastructure, waste from buildings flows directly into the nearest rivers and water resources, directly polluting the water. Wastewater such as household waste and factory wastewater dumped directly into rivers deteriorates water quality. Another aftereffect of rapid urbanization is air pollution, which has also increased due to emissions from automobiles, industrial development and the use of environmentally friendly fuel sources. Noise pollution is caused by a variety of human behaviours that worsen the environment and ultimately affect human health. Due to the increase in population, a large amount of solid waste is generated, and it is required to provide a waste disposal site in urban areas.
- Inefficient transportation system: Urbanization has caused transpiration problems. The number of cars on the road is increasing year by year due to the movement of people to big cities. Although cities offer different types of public transport, people in cities still prefer to drive their own cars. This is due to inefficient public transport. Public transport is provided without mentioning the need to integrate different modes of transportation. Therefore, it is difficult for users to change the means of transportation. Because public transport is unreliable, people usually travel by private car, causing serious problems of traffic congestion in the city. When traffic jams occur, public transportation, especially buses and taxis, and private cars become jammed and stuck. It causes many problems for people.
- Poor quality of life for urban dwellers: Urbanization is a major concern for management researchers as it reduces the quality of life for urban dwellers. When a big city becomes a developed city, land prices also rise. Housing supply is more focused to meet the needs of high-income groups. As a result, housing provision will be a problem, especially for middle and lower class people. The supply of housing to the poor in urban areas is still inadequate. The prices of these homes are so high that low- and middle-income earners can't afford them. Due to the lack of housing supply to low-income groups, illegal residents continue to live in the city. These illegal tenant settlements certainly lack the right infrastructure, pose many obstacles to the urban environment and cause social problems such as early childhood education, crime, drugs and delinquency. In addition to low-income housing problems, the urbanization process is also increasing the demand for infrastructure and utilities that existing facilities cannot meet. Inadequate maintenance of drainage channels and collection of debris can cause serious problems such as flash floods and poor public health. Flash floods reoccur because drainage systems cannot contain the significantly increased surface water runoff associated with increased urban activity.
- Failed City Governance: City authorities face multifaceted challenges in managing cities. The rapid speed of urbanization is a major challenge, and all parties need to focus more on fulfilling all responsibilities in urban development. However, the involvement of multiple agencies and departments in city management complicates the synchronization of many actions, which in turn affects the efficiency of those actions. In addition to this, local governments also deal with the various goals and interests of community groups that they need to fulfill. Local governments also need to find solutions to various social problems.
The city is developed on his 2% of the surface of the land. Their inhabitants use more than three-quarters of the world's resources and generate the same amount of waste. Urban waste affects the region, but these are global issues. Urban impacts are usually seen both locally and globally, causing both regional and global pollution, such as air pollution and the urban population as a major user of energy. These factors adversely affect people's health, air quality and biosphere (Girardet 1996).
Urbanization issues in the context of India: India is known for its large rural population in the world, with approximately 73% of its population living in rural areas. The rate of urban population growth and urbanization is usually slow compared to most other Asian countries. Assessing the process of urbanization from an Indian perspective, the main problems of urbanization in this country are urban sprawl, overcrowding, housing, unemployment, slum and illicit resident settlements, transportation, water and sewerage issues. Observed to be waste disposal, urban crime, and problems.Urban pollution. While urbanization is a mechanism of economic, social and political progress, it can cause serious socio-economic problems. The absolute size of the urban population, the random and unplanned growth of urban areas, and the lack of infrastructure are major problems for India due to urbanization. The rapid increase in urban population due to nature and migration puts great pressure on public works such as housing, sanitation, transportation, water, electricity, health and education.
Poverty, unemployment, underemployment, begging, theft, dacoity, robbery and other social crimes of rural migrants are widespread. The downturn in the city is eroding valuable agricultural land. According to a 2001 statistical report, her city population was more than 285 million. By 2030, more than 50% of her Indian population is expected to live in urban areas. Many issues need to be emphasized.
With both the rapidly growing population and geographical area of cities, urban sprawl or actual urban development is a major cause of urban problems. In most cities, financial support cannot address the problems created by expansion. Massive immigration from rural areas and small towns to large cities has occurred almost consistently, resulting in larger cities. Historical records show that the first large-scale migration flow from rural to urban areas occurred during the "recession" of the late 1930s when people migrated in search of work. Then, during his decade from 1941 to 1951, an additional million people migrated to urban areas in response to his 1947 wartime industrialization and national division. Between 1991 and 2001, more than 20 million people migrated to urban areas. Such big cities often attract the majority of people to get employment opportunities and live in a contemporary style. Such super-urbanization increases the size of cities that challenge the imagination. Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai and Bangalore are examples of urban slumps due to massive migration from the neighborhood.
Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the environment due to the depletion of resources such as air, water, and soil. Ecosystem destruction and wildlife extinction. It is said that when the value of the environment declines or is destroyed, the environment deteriorates. There are many forms of environmental destruction. Their environment is compromised when habitats are destroyed, biodiversity is lost, and natural resources are depleted.
Environmental degradation can occur naturally or through human processes. Currently, the biggest concerns are the disappearance of rainforests, air pollution and smog, ozone depletion, and the destruction of the marine environment.
Environmentalists are working hard to combat environmental degradation. There are countless organizations around the world dedicated to preventing the destruction of the environment on a global scale.
The causes of environmental deterioration are stated as follows.
- Industrial activity: Industrial processes release chemicals that rise into the stratosphere and degrade ozone. For example, CFCs and chlorofluorocarbons are the major causes of ozone depletion. Acid rain, smog, and poor air quality are the result of air pollution. Both industrial activities and automobiles emit large amounts of emissions into the atmosphere. This emission causes acid rain and smog, which reduces air quality and exacerbates air pollution. Industrial activity has led to the depletion of natural resources. For example, coal, natural gas, and petroleum resources, which were rarely used just a century ago, are now consumed in large quantities.
2. Population explosion: Population explosions have been witnessed in the Third World or developing countries. Population explosions are putting more and more pressure on land and water resources. For example, in India, per capita land use is declining each year due to population growth. Due to the population explosion, human activity on survival is exacerbating the problem of environmental degradation. For example, traditional cooking methods using firewood are becoming larger and more impactful on the air environment. Population explosions also cause overgrazing of animals, overuse of land for farming, and urbanization problems, including slums.
3. Farm mechanization: Soil erosion is caused by a variety of activities, including the use of agricultural mechanization. The use of agricultural machinery such as tractors is rapidly destroying organic matter on the farm. Organic matter imbalances reduce productivity and lead to ecological imbalances in farm systems.
4. Insecticides and Insecticides: Excessive use of chemical fertilizers reduces soil fertility. Misuse of fertilizer causes microorganisms to multiply and cause various diseases. Also, groundwater is polluted. Excessive use of pesticides (to destroy pests / herbicides (to destroy weeds)) and herbicides (to destroy weeds) causes these chemicals to grow. It decomposes, causing imbalances in soil composition.
5. Logging: In most areas of developing countries, trees are being logged illegally. Logging is done by villagers to make a living by selling fuel (cooking) and logs. Due to the logging of trees, the forest cover is depleted. For example, near Mumbai, such as Ronabara and MahaValleyshwa, which were once covered in thick green, there are signs of major deforestation. Even in Mumbai, the invasion has reduced forests.
6. Lifestyle changes: Lifestyle changes of people, especially in urban and suburban areas, are causing environmental degradation. In urban areas, the upper middle class and the wealthy are overusing air conditioning in their cooling systems, affecting the air environment. Also, people are overusing plastic carry bags for packaged water and soft drinks (in PET bottles). The plastic material does not deteriorate and does not cause problems with soil or water resources.
7. Development project: Large dams, reservoirs and waterways are being built for irrigation, which causes submersion problems. Improper use of irrigation also causes soil erosion and landslides. Construction of dams such as the Tehri Dam in Uttarakhand can cause serious damage due to the location of earthquake-prone areas. Mining projects can affect the natural environment. This is because mining operations can affect the pollution of surface and groundwater resources.
8. Natural Causes: Many natural processes cause emissions. Eruptions of volcanoes release acid, ash, and many toxic gases. A fire in a forest releases smoke, soot, carcinogenic hydrocarbons, dioxins, and carbon dioxide.
Impact of environmental deterioration on human life
Environmental degradation can be caused by natural factors such as floods and earthquakes, or by human factors such as deforestation and emissions. Environmental degradation can have a negative impact on human life.
1. Air pollution: Caused by the mass combustion of fossil fuels such as gasoline and diesel in urban areas of India, the mass combustion of kerosene, coal and wood fuel in rural areas, and the release of carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. Will be. Health problems caused by air pollution include cancer, respiratory diseases such as asthma and bronchitis, nervous system damage, headache, nausea, and loss of coordination.
2. Noise pollution: Caused by mechanization, vehicle traffic and overpopulation. Health problems caused by noise pollution include hearing loss, high blood pressure, and an increased risk of heart disease.
3. Water pollution and depletion: Due to excessive use of harmful fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides. Groundwater is polluted. Increased concentrations of zinc, lead, manganese and nitrates in groundwater. Excessive use of industrial water resources has depleted water resources in some states, turning water into salt water. Health problems caused by water pollution include gastroenteritis, yellow, and cholera. In India, water pollution is said to be the number one cause of illness.
4. Soil Contamination: Hydrocarbons, heavy metals, pesticides and chlorinated hydrocarbons pollute plants and foods. Health problems caused by soil contamination include cancer damage to the brain, kidneys, and nervous system, fatigue, eye irritation, and skin allergies.
5. Global warming: The rise in the average temperature of the earth since the middle of the 20th century. It causes greenhouse gases and deforestation. It causes extreme weather events such as unusual rain, frequent flash floods, and extreme heat. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC report predicts that warming will reduce crop yields by 30-40% by 2050, causing a serious food crisis for humans.
Climate change can cause health problems such as cancer, ear ailments, fatigue, eye irritation, skin allergies, headaches, nausea, nervous system damage, and water-borne illnesses.
6. Impact of ozone depletion: CFCs, or chlorofluorocarbons, are the leading cause of ozone depletion. When industrial processes release these chemicals, they rise into the stratosphere and deplete the ozone layer. 15km above the surface of the earth is the ozone layer, which is 24km thick. Located in the stratosphere, this layer protects the earth from the harmful UV rays of the sun. Chlorine atoms released from the earth react with ozone molecules to create an imbalance. These chlorine molecules are released from artificial chemicals such as CFCs. When these chemicals reach the ozone layer, ozone molecules are lost, which is called ozone depletion. When this happens, the capacity of the ozone layer is reduced, filtering out harmful UV rays from the sun. Ultraviolet rays have adverse effects such as skin cancer.
Key takeaways:
- According to the United Nations, there are three types of regions, the administrative, economic and ecological urban areas are population clusters, and the inhabitants live in closely adjacent structures.
- The location of a city is the boundary of the territory as a city, regardless of the boundary.
- Agglutination means a mass of a group.
- Urban population means the population or people who live in an urban area.
- According to Redfield, urbanization is used to explain the size, density, and variability of population within scientific sites.
- People who move from one place to another in search of work or housing are called immigrants.
- Migration is becoming a very important issue for urban life.
- Poverty prevents them from living a normal and healthy life.
- India is known for its large rural population in the world, with approximately 73% of its population living in rural areas.
- Population explosions have been witnessed in the Third World or developing countries.
- Soil erosion is caused by a variety of activities, including the use of agricultural mechanization.
- Environmental degradation can be caused by natural factors such as floods and earthquakes, or by human factors such as deforestation and emissions.
Changing land use
Apart from farming, the use of land for housing and related purposes has been part of the invasion of human civilization into natural ecosystems from the beginning. However, the amount of land covered by the settlements was largely negligible until the advent of industrialization and the large-scale urbanization process it brought about. Urbanization — understood as an increase in urban (compared to rural) population and “urban” workforce. Manufacturing compared to the agricultural workforce—In most cases, land use needs to be converted from non-urban use to urban use due to the increased need for space in (existing) residential areas. The visible result of land-use changes associated with urbanization is the spatial expansion of urban areas (meaning significant changes in land cover characteristics), accompanied by changes in urban spatial structure and urban morphology.
Since the heyday of industrialization in the 19th century, the rapid conversion of open land, mostly agricultural land, to settlement has been accompanied by obvious criticism. Even at that time, the rapid growth of the center of the industrial city caused great suspicion, not only about the accumulation of human disorder, vices and despair (ie, "traditional" anti-city concerns), but also about the destruction of traditional things. A landscape due to the blamed (idyllic) desire for land. In a speech to a U.S. City planner in 1937, Earl Draper, director of the Tennessee River Basin Corporation, first used the term "sprawl" to describe, from his point of view, the specific urban growth patterns that make up the countryside. I used it. Ugly, uneconomical [services and questionable social value] "(quoted in Wassmer 2002). Since then, and to this day, scientific and political debates about the negative and negative effects of urban land-use change in both developed and developing countries are primarily related to the concept of urban sprawl (the concept of urban sprawl).
Recently, changes in urban land use are often referred to as "land consumption" in connection with growing concerns about ecological issues and the finiteness of natural resources (Meadows et al. 1972) (Frenkel 2004; Köcketal). 2007; Nuissl et al. 2009), this is a somewhat inaccurate concept because (the amount of) land does not decrease with different uses. However, concepts such as urban sprawl, land consumption, and land use clearly show the link between changes in urban land use and negative side effects.
Angel et al from 1990 to 2000. (2005: 56) estimated that the annual increase in urban areas in developing countries was about 3.6%, but in industrialized countries it was only 2.9% on average. Among the regions of the world, East Asia and Southeast Asia, including the Pacific Ocean, witnessed the most concentrated land consumption, with growth rates of 7.2% and 6.4%, respectively. In Europe, the annual growth rate of urban land is expected to be in the range of up to 2% in fast-growing areas and near zero in remote rural areas (EEA2006). Focusing on the European Union, Kuemmerle etc. (2016) Linking this observation to other types of land-use changes: "The most widespread change in the EU's land-use category between 1990 and 2006 was the decline in cultivated land (" ~ 136,660 km2), and then grazing expanded. Land (~ 75,670 km2), and forest area expansion (~ 70,630 km2). The most uncommon conversion in a wide range of land use categories is urban expansion (~). 16,820 km2) .... On a European scale, these area changes are converted to moderate land-use rates in the agricultural sector between 1990 and 2006. Grazing from -13.4% of permanent crops. Up to + 6.5% of land and pasture, urban areas have expanded by about 21%. ”(Kuemmerle et al. 2016: 5). In addition, various other studies provide empirical evidence that urban land use is clearly outpacing population growth and declining overall density (eg Fulton et al. 2001; Glaeser and). Kahn 2003; Lopez and Hynes 2003; Angel et al. 2005; Theobald 2005). At the same time, in metropolitan areas, the density gradient of cities has leveled off significantly over time. Urban densities declined worldwide between 1990 and 2000, 4.9% annually in East Asia and 1.9% relatively modest in Europe.
However, looking at urban size and growth alone, there is insufficient insight into the dynamics of urban land-use change (even if it is related to population growth). There are many different types of changes in urban land use, and the impacts are quite diverse. (McGranahan and Marcotullio 2005). For example, housing development on former farmlands usually damages much less other wildlife habitats than industrial development on drained wetlands. Similarly, new developments near existing settlements are less likely to violate the landscape matrix than the development of many small, unconnected patches of urban land. Therefore, it is necessary to consider not only the amount of land converted for urban use, but also the following:
Former land use and land cover (agriculture, forests, nature).
The main objectives of new urban use (residential, commercial, industrial, recreation, etc.) and corresponding land cover features (surface impermeability, pollutant emissions, etc.).
Land locations and patterns in the new city and Land use efficiency.
Recognizing these aspects is important not only for a comprehensive understanding of the dynamics of land use change and their impact on environmental quality, but also as the basis for urban planning and management.
New possibilities for more complex monitoring of land use change dynamics to capture differences in aspects such as urban morphology, land use, development, and location patterns, with significant improvements in digital land use and land cover data resolution and quality. Was opened. Land use efficiency (eg Schneider and Woodcock 2008). Taking advantage of the availability of such data, many methodological approaches have been introduced to provide a quantitative assessment of urban land use changes (for a brief overview, for example, Chin 2002; Frenkel). See and Ashkenazi 2008, or Siedentop and Fina 2010). Table 5.1 shows significant measurements (indicators) of urban land-use changes, along with their function (explanation) and sources of literature.
Stress on urban resources
Urban Environmental Stress and Health (UES)
Living in an urban environment is devoted to adverse physical environments (pollution, population, extreme temperatures, congestion, landscape deterioration, over-accumulation of solid waste, etc.) and exposure to such environments. It is an interface between the personal characteristics caused by the time spent. Disgusting situations such as time spent commuting, time spent in the crowd, exposure to polluted air and smoke, exposure to high levels of noise. If these situations exceed acceptable levels, the person is said to be under stress. Urban environmental stress is a condition that represents the level of anxiety of urban residents and faces daily commotion that is incompatible with their lives [7]. Commuting as a stressor interferes with family and leisure activities and results in more absenteeism. Costa etc. [8] indicates that commuters generally experienced a more stressful lifestyle and increased psychological and physical health problems. Cities are a larger source of noise, leading to higher levels of discomfort, irritation, and insomnia. Some studies have focused on residents' discomfort with traffic noise and can be disgusting enough to discourage all types of social activity, including aggressive behavior
Degradation of air, water, loss of soil cover impact on biodiversity.
Environmental deterioration is the deterioration of the environment due to the depletion of resources such as air, water, and soil. Ecosystem destruction and wildlife extinction. It is said that environmental deterioration occurs when the value of the environment declines or is damaged. There are many forms of environmental degradation. Habitat destruction, biodiversity loss, and depletion of natural resources can damage the environment.
Environmental degradation can occur naturally or through human processes. Currently, the biggest concerns are the loss of rainforests, air pollution and smog, ozone depletion, and the destruction of the marine environment.
Environmentalists are working hard to combat environmental degradation. There are countless organizations around the world dedicated to preventing the global destruction of the environment.
The causes of environmental deterioration are as follows.
1. Industrial activity: Industrial processes release chemicals and rise into the stratosphere to break down ozone. For example, CFCs or chlorofluorocarbons are a major cause of ozone depletion. Acid rain, smog, and poor air quality are the result of air pollution. Both industrial activities and automobiles emit huge amounts of emissions into the atmosphere. This emission causes acid rain, smog, deterioration of air quality, and serious air pollution. Industrial activity has led to the depletion of natural resources. For example, coal, natural gas, and petroleum resources, which were rarely used a century ago, are now consumed in large quantities.
2. Population explosion: The Third World or developing countries are witnessing a population explosion. Population explosions are putting more and more pressure on land and water resources. In India, for example, per capita land availability is declining each year due to population growth. Due to the overpopulation, human activity on survival is exacerbating the problem of environmental degradation. For example, traditional cooking methods using firewood are becoming larger and larger, affecting the air environment. Population explosions also pose problems of overgrazing of animals, overuse of land for cultivation, and urbanization, including slums. The increase in tribal population has increased hunting activity and led to the depletion of wildlife resources.
3. Farm mechanization: Various activities, including the use of agricultural mechanization, cause soil erosion. The use of farm equipment such as tractors is causing the rapid destruction of organic matter on the farm. Organic matter imbalances reduce productivity and lead to ecological imbalances in farm systems.
4. Pesticides and pesticides: Overuse of chemical fertilizers reduced soil fertility. Misuse of fertilizer causes microorganisms to multiply and cause various diseases. It also pollutes groundwater. Also, excessive use of pesticides (to destroy pests) and herbicides (to destroy weeds) has caused imbalances in soil composition due to the biodegradability of these chemicals.
5. Tree logging: There was illegal logging in most areas of developing countries. Logging is done by villagers to sell fuel (cooking) and logs to earn a living. Logging has led to the depletion of forest coverings. For example, near Mumbai, such as Ronabara and Maha Valleyshwa, which once boasted thick green coverings, there are signs of major deforestation. Even in Mumbai, forests are decreasing due to invasion.
6. Lifestyle changes: Lifestyle changes of people, especially in urban and sub-urban areas, have resulted in environmental degradation. In urban areas, the upper middle class and the wealthy are overusing the refrigeration system of air conditioners, affecting the atmospheric environment. People also want packaged water and soft drinks (in PET bottles) and overuse plastic carry bags. Plastic materials do not deteriorate and cause problems with soil and water resources.
7. Development project: Large dams, reservoirs and canals were built for irrigation, causing flooding problems. Misuse of irrigation also causes soil erosion and landslides. Construction of dams such as the Teri Dam in Uttarakhand can be seriously damaging due to the location of earthquake-prone areas. Mining projects can affect the natural environment. This is because mining operations can affect the pollution of surface and groundwater resources.
8. Natural Causes: Many natural processes cause emissions. When a volcano erupts, it releases acids, ash, and many toxic gases. A fire in a forest releases smoke, soot, carcinogenic hydrocarbons, dioxins, and carbon dioxide.
Loss of soil cover impact on biodiversity.
It is estimated that at least half of the world’s topsoil has been eroded within the last 150 years by human activities such as logging, overgrazing and unsustainable farming practices [1]. Healthy soil supports life on Earth, so continued loss of topsoil will adversely affect much of life on Earth, including ourselves. Throughout human history, severe soil erosion has even destroyed the entire civilization.
This article describes some of the most important implications of how soil erosion adversely affects global biodiversity.
How does erosion affect the biodiversity of our ecosystem?
- Longer ecosystem recovery time
When soil erosion occurs, it can take much longer for the ecosystem to recover than if the soil was not so severely disturbed. Reconstruction of healthy soil is estimated to take about 1,000 years to form an inch of soil if left alone to natural processes .
If the ecosystem is very degraded due to soil erosion, it will take a very long time for its biodiversity to recover, even if it recovers even in that area.
b. Loss of topsoil and soil fertility, reduction of native plant species.
When topsoil is lost, soil fertility is also lost, and optimal soil conditions for the growth of many native plants are also lost.
When the soil is very disturbed, weed seeds often come to settle in the disturbed soil. This can be a good situation as weed roots help keep the soil in place and prevent further erosion, but weed species can colonize turbulent ecosystems. It can also be composed of seeds. Such "open door" opportunities for invasive species may ultimately allow invasive species to crush native plant species that are still present in the ecosystem after erosion disorders.
In some cases, the eroded soil is disturbed and the landscape becomes completely barren, where the life of the plant does not even grow much. This barren landscape ultimately leads to a significant reduction in biodiversity in the ecosystems of many organisms that are unable to live there.
c. Increased risk of flooding
Severely eroded soil does not tend to retain water well. This increases the risk of flooding and can further erode the remaining soil, adversely affecting the biodiversity of the ecosystem.
Key takeaways:
- Apart from farming, the use of land for housing and related purposes has been part of the invasion of human civilization into natural ecosystems from the beginning.
- However, looking at urban size and growth alone, there is insufficient insight into the dynamics of urban land-use change (even if it is related to population growth)
- Recognizing these aspects is important not only for a comprehensive understanding of the dynamics of land use change and their impact on environmental quality, but also as the basis for urban planning and management.
- Living in an urban environment is devoted to adverse physical environments (pollution, population, extreme temperatures, congestion, landscape deterioration, over-accumulation of solid waste, etc.) and exposure to such environments.
- Environmental deterioration is the deterioration of the environment due to the depletion of resources such as air, water, and soil.
- The causes of environmental deterioration .
- It is estimated that at least half of the world’s topsoil has been eroded within the last 150 years by human activities such as logging, overgrazing and unsustainable farming practices
- How does erosion affect the biodiversity of our ecosystem?
A smart city that connects human capital, social capital, and ICTinfrastructure to address public issues develop and improve the quality of life of citizens.
Smart city goals
- Focus on mobility systems
Cities of the future will rely on unmanned vehicles shared among the inhabitants. Not only is it easier and cheaper to move around the city, but it also eliminates the need for parking spaces and garages, which occupy 30-40% of the city's space.
2. Set new standards for sustainability
City officials must also consider how the amount of energy used for heating and cooling can be reduced. Sustainability goals should also include ways to promote recycling and improve waste collection.
3. Changes in building structure and usage
When designing a smart city, it is important to consider how the building is constructed and look for better ways. Using new materials (for example, cross-laminated lumbar) lowers construction costs and makes buildings more affordable. Once built, building planning needs to be more flexible so that it can be used for multiple purposes within the same unit.
4. Standardization is essential
As smart cities are developed and technology is implemented, it is important for city authorities to plan for flexibility and future use. By setting the criteria, you can go back and change after the fact.
Robust digital infrastructure allows vendors and technology to be exchanged as needed without being tied to a mechanism that would make a city obsolete in the future. Standardization also helps drive competition and innovation. This reduces costs and allows smart cities to grow over time.
5. Protecting resident privacy
It is important to build an optimized system at all times, but cities also need to maintain privacy and ensure that the privacy of individual citizens is not compromised. This means that the data collected and used for optimization should track the entire system, not individuals or personal information. You are also required to be responsible for how the city uses the data.
Smart city projects around the world challenge our assumptions about how cities are built and how city planning is well thought out. Most cities are already built. That is, you cannot start from a blank canvas and build from scratch. However, it is definitely possible for city officials to investigate what other cities are doing and convert those ideas into their own. The smart city project allows us to dream of what we want our city to look like in the future.
For city officials, this means thinking big and not afraid to push the boundaries of what's possible.
Sustainable cities
Everyone living in a city is worth the good quality of life and the social and economic opportunities offered by controlled urbanization. That is why AFD promotes and supports the development of sustainable cities. These cities are open to all men and women. They are efficient, safe and resilient. They ensure essential services, simple and effective transportation, equitable access to work, and reduce residents' anxiety and vulnerability to risks such as climate change.
Ensuring fair access to essential services
Ensuring that all city dwellers live a decent life is one of AFD's strong commitments. Achieving this goal requires efforts to promote all access to essential facilities and services such as water and sanitation, solid waste collection and management, public electricity and lighting, and high quality public green spaces. Is. In the case of AFD, it also includes actions to improve and diversify the housing offered.
The vectors of public health, dignity and women's liberation, and sustainable and non-discriminatory access to these services, promote involvement in the social and economic life of the community. Conversely, lack of these services or poor quality can result in quarantine, environmental degradation and instability.
Depending on the situation, this means developing networks and services such as:
This means that you can get the right service and the right price, like Dhaka in Bangladesh or Manila in the Philippines.
Sustainable thanks to low-emission, natural resource conservation solutions
Safe and secure, including women, children and people with disabilities
Well managed for quality performance.
Special attention is paid to unstable, disadvantaged and / or remote areas to combat inequality and poverty.
The world is urbanizing faster than ever. Currently, half of humanity (3.5 billion people) live in cities. This number will rise to 60% in 2030 and 70% in 2050. This accelerating urbanization is particularly pronounced in Africa and Asia, often leading to unplanned and inefficient development that leads to extreme inequality. The United Nations Human Settlement Program predicts that if no action is taken, the population will double (1 to 2 billion) by 2030.
More generally, both continents provide access to important services, limit congestion, adapt to the effects of climate change, create economic appeal and jobs, increase resources for infrastructure financing, We continue to face many challenges, including improving local governance.
But from a solution-seeking perspective, the freedom and cross-pollination that cities offer can make them social engineering labs that produce the most innovative and creative solutions. As part of its territorial and ecosystem migration strategy, AFD is involved in funding, promoting and supporting the development of sustainable cities that harmonize social cohesion with economic outcomes and environmental protection.
In 2019, AFD promised € 1,113 million for sustainable urban development and support for local governments.
India:
In Kochi, urban and social movements are holding hands
Kochi, the largest city in Kerala in southern India, was once crowded with dense and chaotic traffic. Since the opening of the new subway in June 2017, the city has now become easier to breathe. The new train network not only eased traffic congestion, but also brought social benefits
Amritsar takes a step towards smarter travel
The Sanctuary Amritsar is located in northern Punjab and is home to the famous Sikh sanctuary Golden His Temple. The project advocated by Amritsar Smart City Limited (ASCL) is dedicated to reforming the public transport system. Their main purpose is to introduce more electric vehicles and "smart cards", provide a feeder network for last mile connections, and digitize public transport systems. This will not only reduce costs and make public transport accessible to both residents and visitors, but will also benefit Amritsar's environment in the long run.
Bhubaneswar reimagines public places
Bhubaneswar is the capital of eastern Orissa and an important cultural center of the region. Designed by Bhubaneswar Smart City Limited (BSCL), the B-Active project aims to reinvent urban open spaces and find solutions to many other urban problems. BSCL's initiative is based on the development of the city's main assets: streets, parks, playgrounds, waterways and heritage areas. These measures not only allow citizens to manage open spaces, but also prioritize active recreation, organized sports and public health.
Ujjain has more room to breathe
Ujain is an ancient city and popular pilgrimage site in Madhya Pradesh, the central province of India. A project proposed by Ujain Smart City Limited (USCL) will develop some of the city's most visited areas uncrowded, increasing the likelihood of accepting and engaging both Ujain tourists and residents. Is aimed at. In particular, the project focuses on strengthening roads and public roads, and redeveloping open spaces around Mahakal Temple, MaharajwadaComplex and Lake Chotrudrasagar
Surat, from wastelands to biodiversity hubs
The historic port city of Surat is located in West Gujarat. To increase the green space and open space available in Surat, Surat Smart City Development Limited (SSCDL) has proposed a great idea to turn the wasteland of the city into a fascinating biodiversity park. This will clear up the vacant lots and provide a habitat for flora and fauna, as well as a place for public parks. In addition, this project will create and connect ponds to help regulate and retain rainwater.
Key takeaways:
- A smart city that connects human capital, social capital, and ICTinfrastructure to address public issues develop and improve the quality of life of citizens.
- Cities of the future will rely on unmanned vehicles shared among the inhabitants.
- City officials must also consider how the amount of energy used for heating and cooling can be reduced.
- It is important to build an optimized system at all times, but cities also need to maintain privacy and ensure that the privacy of individual citizens is not compromised.
- Everyone living in a city is worth the good quality of life and the social and economic opportunities offered by controlled urbanization.
- Special attention is paid to unstable, disadvantaged and / or remote areas to combat inequality and poverty.
- Kochi, the largest city in Kerala in southern India, was once crowded with dense and chaotic traffic. Since the opening of the new subway in June 2017, the city has now become easier to breathe.
- The new train network not only eased traffic congestion, but also brought social benefits.
Reference:
1. Https://www.britannica.com/topic/urbanization
2. Https://www.toppr.com/guides/evs/no-place-for-us/migration-and-its-
Effects/
3. Https://www.who.int/heli/risks/urban/en/
4. Https://www.civilserviceindia.com/subject/General-
Studies/notes/environmental-pollution-and-degradation.html
5. Https://www.thegef.org/topics/sustainable-cities