Unit I
Environmental Studies
Introduction:
Today the word environment is often used by almost everyone around us, on television and in newspapers. Everyone speaks of protecting and preventing the environment. Global summits are held regularly to discuss environmental issues. Over the past hundred years the mutual relationship between the environment, social organization and culture has been discussed in sociology, anthropology and geography. All of this shows the increasing importance of the environment. It is also a fact that life is connected to the environment.
The social sciences have adopted the concept of ecology from biology. As a branch of biology, ecology is the study of the relationship between living things and their environment. Sociology has been heavily influenced by biology. Sociology also studies the relationship between humans and the environment through ecology. The research area of human ecology in sociology focuses on humans and their environment.
Meaning
The term environment comes from the French word "environment" which means to surround. This refers to both abiotic (physical or abiotic) and biological (living) environments. The word environment means the environment in which living things live. The environment and living things are two dynamic and complex elements of nature. The environment regulates the life of living things, including humans. Humans interact with the environment more actively than other living things. The environment usually refers to the substances and forces that surround living things.
The environment is the sum of the conditions that surround us at a particular point in time and in space. It consists of an interacting system of physical, biological and cultural elements, which are interrelated collectively and individually. The environment is the sum of the conditions under which an organism must survive or sustain its life process. It affects the growth and development of living things.
In other words, the environment is that surrounds living things from all sides and affects their lives. It consists of the biosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and atmosphere. Its main components are soil, water, air, living things and solar energy. It has provided us with all the resources to live a comfortable life.
Definition:
1. According to P. Gisbert “Environment is anything immediately surrounding an object and exerting a direct influence on it.”
2. According to E. J. Ross “Environment is an external force which influences us.”
3. According to Bowling, "a person's environment consists of the sum of the stimuli he receives from his conception to his death." The environment is physically, intellectually, mentally, economically, politically, Indicates that it contains various types of power, cultural or social, moral and emotional.
4. Douglas and Holland define that "the term environment is used to collectively describe all external forces, influences and conditions that affect life, nature, behavior and the growth, development and maturity of living things."
Therefore, an environment is anything that directly surrounds an object and directly affects it. Our environment is different from us, but refers to things or institutions that affect our lives and activities. An environment in which humans are surrounded and affected by factors such as nature, man-made, society, biology, and psychology.
Scope of environment:
The environment consists of four segments of the Earth: the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the lithosphere, and the biosphere.
1. Atmosphere: The atmosphere forms a unique protective layer around the earth with a thickness of about 100 km. A surface of gas called the atmosphere surrounds the earth and protects the surface of the earth from the harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun. It sustains life on earth. It also regulates the temperature to prevent the earth from getting too hot or too cold. It saves it from the hostile environment of space . In addition to nitrogen and oxygen, the atmosphere is composed of argon, carbon dioxide, and trace gases.
The atmosphere has a significant effect on the energy balance of the Earth's surface. It absorbs most of the cosmic rays from space and most of the electromagnetic radiation from the sun. It transmits only ultraviolet, visible, near-infrared radiation (300-2500 nm) and radio waves. (0.14-40 m) Filters out super-violating waves that damage tissues below approximately 300 nm.
2. Hydrosphere: The hydrosphere is made up of all types of water resources, including oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, streams, reservoirs, polar caps, glaciers, and groundwater. The ocean accounts for 97% of the Earth's water, and about 2% of its water resources are confined to polar ice caps and glaciers. Only about 1% of freshwater is available as surface water for rivers, lakes, streams, and groundwater for human use.
3. Lithosphere: The lithosphere is the outer mantle of the Solid Earth. It is composed of minerals present in the crust and soil. Minerals, organic matter, air, water.
4. Biosphere: The biosphere describes the interaction of living territories with their environment: the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, and the lithosphere.
The scope of environmental research is very wide, and many fields such as-
i) conservation of natural resources,
Ii) ecological aspects,
Iii) pollution of surrounding natural resources,
Iv) pollution management,
v) related social issues.
Vi) We are dealing with the impact of the human population on the environment.
Components of environment:
The environment is made up of interacting systems of physical, biological and social elements that are interrelated individually or collectively in various ways. These elements are:
(1) Physical elements
Physical elements are space, terrain, body of water, climate, soil, rocks and minerals. They determine the diverse nature, opportunities, and limits of human habitat. This physical constituent of the environment is again divided into three parts.
These are:
(i) Atmosphere (gas)
(ii) Hydrosphere (liquid)
(iii) Lithosphere (solid)
These three parts represent the three important states of the substances that make up the environment. This physical component of the environment consists entirely of non-living organisms such as air, water and soil. All these non-living organisms have a great impact on all living things, including humans. Water and temperature are the most important abiotic factors that affect living organisms. A larger proportion of body weight is due to water.
All living things need water to survive. In addition to water, it is a major important liquid for maintaining the optimum temperature of the body. All life activates work in a specific temperature range. Creatures die when the temperature rises higher than necessary.
Air is the main physical component that oxygenates breathing. All living things, including plants and animals, need oxygen to survive. Oxygen is taken into the body by breathing and excreted from carbon dioxide. On the other hand, plants take in carbon dioxide during photosynthesis to cook and supply oxygen to the surroundings.
Soil is of paramount importance for all living things to create habitats. It is the soil on which plants grow and build homes for humans. Groundwater present in the soil provides drinking water and other agricultural activities.
(2) Biological elements
Biological elements such as plants, animals, microorganisms, and men make up the biosphere. The self sufficient large ecosystem of the earth is called Biosphere. All ecosystems consist of three different types of living organisms.
These three types are named as:
(a) Producers.
(b) Consumers.
(c) Decomposers.
Producers are usually green plants and other photosynthetic bacteria that produce a variety of organic substances such as carbohydrates and proteins with the help of water, soil and light energy. Consumers rely on organic foods produced by green plants for nutrition. Decomposers cause the decomposition of dead plants and animals and return the various minerals needed to carry out the biogeochemical cycle. These zones are explained in fig 1(A).1
(3) The social components of the environment are mainly composed of different groups of different organisms such as birds and animals. Humans are the most intelligent creatures. Like other creatures, humans build houses, prepare food, and release waste into the environment. As the Greek philosopher Aristotle said, humans are social animals. He makes various laws and policies for the proper functioning of society.
His three components of the environment create four important zones. These are the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the lithosphere, and the biosphere. These he has a continuous interaction between the four zones. These interactions include the transport of various elements, compounds, and energy forms.
Atmosphere:
The Earth's atmosphere, a complex fluid system of gas and suspended particles, did not have its origin at the beginning of the planet. Today's atmosphere derives from the Earth itself through chemical and biochemical reactions. The fluid system forms an envelope of gas around the earth, but its boundaries are not easy to define. They can be arbitrarily defined as the Earth's atmospheric interface and the cosmic interface.
A gas like nitrogen. Oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide, water vapor, etc. combine to form the total volume of the atmosphere. With suspended particles, ie. Dust and so in so make up gas turbidity, especially in the troposphere. However, the composition and structure of the atmosphere also change over time and space.
The vertical structure of the atmosphere is closely related to the absorption of radiant energy, which can be explained by changes in temperature [Fig. 1 (A) 2]. Less than 60 kg. There are two main absorption zones on the surface of the earth and the ozone layer. The absorbed energy is redistributed by radiation, conduction and convection.
Therefore, there are two maximum temperatures, one on the surface of the earth and one at an altitude of 50 km. Above each of these maximums is primarily convective mixing. The temperature of these mixed layers decreases with height above the heat source. The lower part of these two zones is called the troposphere, and the upper part is called the mesosphere.
These are separated by a less mixed layer, where the atmosphere tends toward a layered structure called the stratosphere. There is a tropopause between the ionosphere and the stratosphere, which indicates an approximate upper limit for the mixing of the lower atmosphere. The average height of this is usually 11 km, but this is different on Earth.
At tropical latitudes, its average height is 16 km. It is only 10 km in polar latitudes. Above the mesosphere is one heating zone over 90 km. From the surface where short-wave UV light is absorbed by many oxygen molecules present at this height. This is called the thermosphere.
Within this layer, ionization occurs that produces charged ions and free electrons. At a height of about 700 km beyond the thermosphere is the exosphere, where the density of the atmosphere is very low. At this level, the number of ionized particles concentrated in a band called the Van Allen belt is increasing.
However, this easy model of vertical structure are often simplified to supply a model of the atmosphere as two concentric shells, the boundary of which is defined by the stratopause, which is approximately 50 km. Above the surface of the earth and a virtual out-of-atmosphere limit of about 80,000 km.
Below the stratopause, in the stratosphere and troposphere, there is 99% of the total mass of the atmosphere, and it is at this level that the atmospheric circulation system works. Beyond the stratopause, there is a layer of approximately 80,000 km. The thick layer contains only 1% of the total mass of the atmosphere and is ionized by high-energy, short-wavelength solar radiation. The temperature distribution of the atmospheric layer is shown in Fig. 1 (A) 2.
Hydrosphere:
This includes surface water and its surrounding interfaces. It is indispensable for the survival of life molecules. Water has many physical and chemical properties that help molecules function as the optimal medium for vital activity. The movement of water from the surface to the atmosphere by the water cycle seems to be a close system.
Water is that the most abundant substance on the surface of the world . The ocean covers about 71% of the Earth's water, and glaciers and ice caps cover even more. Water is also present in lakes and streams, soil and underground reservoirs, in the atmosphere, and in the body of all living things. Thus, all forms of water, such as ice, liquids, water and water vapor, are very familiar to us.
We use water for home, industry, agriculture and recreation. The quantity and quality of water required for these applications varies greatly. Use all available water sources in some way, including inland water, groundwater, and even ocean water.
The available pure freshwater has declined significantly, but the demand for water resources around the world is increasing day by day. Therefore, it is necessary to make valuable use of pure fresh water and its fruitful storage and preservation. The outline of the water cycle is shown in Fig. 1 (A).
Lithosphere:
It is the outer boundary layer of the Solid Earth, a discontinuity in the mantle. The outer boundaries form a complex interface with the atmosphere and hydrosphere, and are also the environment in which life has evolved. The inner boundary is adjacent to the rock, which is near its melting point and can move relative to the upper lithosphere.
Basically, the lithosphere is nothing more than a crustal system consisting of various layers: the core, the mantle, and the outer shell. Such a crustal layer is composed of various elements mixed in various proportions. In general, earth caste is composed of three major classes of rock (classified based on the mode of origin).
Igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks, metamorphic rocks. There are two types of crust. The continental crust is composed of silicon-aluminum granite with an average density of 2.8. The other oceanic crust is basaltic in composition and consists of more basic minerals with an average density of 3.0. Overall, the average density of the Earth is 5.5 gm / c.c.
Interactions between the lithosphere's crust, atmosphere and biosphere occur where the continental crust is exposed above sea level. At the land-air interface, crustal material is exposed to solar radiation energy, precipitation, and atmospheric gas inputs. These inputs are often modified or function by the influence of the biosphere's biological system. Under the influence of these inputs, crustal rocks are decomposed by the weathering process and moved to a fine porous crustal layer called soil.
The outline of the stratum and the composition of the crustal material are shown in Fig. 1 (A) 4.
Biosphere:
The biosphere covers all zones on the earth where life exists, that is, the entire biological resources of the earth. It has evolved from 4.5 billion years on Earth. There are many types of life, from the upper part of the lithosphere, to the entire hydrosphere, to the lower atmosphere. These biological resources and their surroundings make up the "biosphere" in which human beings act as the most evolved organisms.
The steps involved in the origin of life on Earth are extremely complex and take centuries. Considerable uncertainty surrounds the details of atmospheric composition, the processes involved, and even the sequence of several events that lead to the formation of living cells. Traditionally, the earliest organisms in plants were considered heterotrophic prokaryotes. After that, autotrophic prokaryotes and eukaryotes begin to appear as gradual evolutionary changes. The major steps in the origin of life on the Primitive Earth are shown in Figure 1 (A) .5.
Life on Earth requires water, an energy source (sunlight), and a variety of nutrients found in soil, water, and air. The right combination of these necessities cannot be found in the upper atmosphere or deep underground. These are only present in a narrow layer near the surface of the Earth.
This biosphere layer extends to most surfaces of the Earth. This includes the upper layers of the Earth's crust and the thick soil layers that support plant life. This living area also covers about 8 km. It reaches the atmosphere (biota in the air) and extends up to 8 km. To the bottom of the sea. Organisms are not uniformly distributed on Earth, with few organisms inhabiting polar ice caps and glaciers, but many inhabiting rainforests (Fig. 1 (A)). ). 6).
Within the living area, there are several major areas, including certain types of ecosystems. These major areas are called biomes. Biomes are recognized by major ecosystem types such as rainforests, temperate forests, prairie, deserts, and Arctic tundra. Ecosystems are also made up of populations of individuals.
Tables 1 (A) .1 and 1 (A) .2 show global estimates of both prokaryotic and eukaryotic species. 2 These numbers are ours on Earth. Does it imply the fact that the biological world is so diverse?
Key takeaways:
- The social sciences have adopted the concept of ecology from biology. As a branch of biology, ecology is the study of the relationship between living things and their environment.
- The term environment comes from the French word "environment" which means to surround.
- The environment is the sum of the conditions that surround us at a particular point in time and in space
- Scope of environment.
- The environment is made up of interacting systems of physical, biological and cultural elements that are interrelated individually or collectively in various ways.
The term ecosystem was coined in 1935 by Oxford ecologist Arthur Tansley and embraces the interaction between the biological and abiotic elements of the environment at a particular location. The living and non-living elements of an ecosystem are known as biological and abiotic components, respectively.
Ecosystems, in the form currently accepted by Eugene Odum, are "all living things, that is, specific nutritional structures in which the flow of energy interacts with the physical environment to lead to well-defined nutritional structures, biodiversity. Defined as "a unit that contains the local community." And the material cycle, the exchange of matter between living and non-living things in the system. "
Definition of an Ecosystem
An ecosystem or biome represents a single environment and all living (living) organisms and non-living (non-living) factors contained within or characterizing it. Ecosystems embody every aspect of a single habitat, including all interactions between its different elements.
(1) The ecosystem may be a major structural and functional unit of ecology.
(2) The structure of an ecosystem is linked to the diversity of its species; the most complex ecosystems have a great diversity of species.
(3) The function of the ecosystem is related to the flow of energy and the cycle of materials through and within the system.
(4) The relative amount of energy needed to take care of an ecosystem depends on its structure. The more complex the structure, the less energy it needs to maintain itself.
(5) Ecosystems mature from less complex to more complex states. The early stages of such a succession have an excess of potential energy and a relatively high energy flow per unit of biomass. The later (mature) stages have less energy accumulation and its flow through more diverse components.
(6) Both the environment and therefore the fixation of energy during a given ecosystem are limited and can't be exceeded without causing serious undesirable effects.
(7) Environmental alterations represent selective pressures on the population to which it must adapt. Organisms that are unable to adapt to the changed environment must need to disappear.
The ecosystem is an integrated unit or area of varying size, comprising vegetation, fauna, microbes and the environment. Most ecosystems characteristically have well-defined soil, climate, flora and fauna (or communities) and have their own potential for adaptation, change and tolerance.
Characteristics of an Ecosystem:
- Abiotic components of an ecosystem
The elements considered to be lifeless in an ecosystem also are referred to as "abiota", but also interact with one another and with other components.
Among the abiotic components are physical factors like humidity, light, temperature, wind, dew, and space.
b. Biotic components of an ecosystem
Organisms that sleep in an ecosystem also are referred to as “biota”. Biotic components are often classified consistent with the sort of food which characterizes them or consistent with their nutritional needs, into autotrophs and heterotrophs.
Autotrophs are self-fertilizing or feeding organisms. It's bacteria, plants and algae that use inorganic raw materials to form their own food.
In contrast, heterotrophs are those that prey on others. With this we ask the animals, fungi and microorganisms which, from the ingestion of other animals or plants, get their energy and nutrients.
c. How an ecosystem works
Basically, for an ecosystem to function, you would like energy. Energy is what sustains the lifetime of the ecosystem. The most source of energy for any ecosystem comes from the sun.
Another function of energy in an ecosystem is that the mobilization of water, minerals and other physical elements, which allows them to pass from soil, water or air to organisms.
Even the energy allows these components to pass from one living organism to a different and eventually return to the soil, water or air from which they came out, thus closing the cycle.
d. Ecological succession
Sometimes certain elements of an ecosystem are naturally replaced by another element over time.
For example, within the case of vegetation where grass replaces mosses and lichens. Once the ecosystem regains its balance and therefore the changes cease, it's called the climax.
From there, the changes that occur are among an equivalent things, for instance , new trees replacing old trees.
When changes occur as a result of human intervention, succession is claimed to possess anthropogenic causes.
e. Biomes
Biome refers to large terrestrial ecosystems that are characterized by an equivalent sort of vegetation.
On our planet, there are many biomes which are mainly determined by climate (temperature and rain), soils and vegetation.
The climate is successively influenced by the macroclimate of the region and therefore the microclimate of the precise place.
f. Classification consistent with their origin
Ecosystems are often classified in several ways. a primary classification is consistent with whether the origin of an equivalent thing is natural or artificial.
Natural ecosystems haven't been altered by act . Artificial ecosystems are created by humans for a selected purpose. Samples of the latter are dams or reservoirs.
g. Sort by size and site
They can even be classified consistent with the dimensions of the ecosystem. It’s called Micro ecosystem when it's a little extension, like an aquarium or a little garden on the balcony of a house.
On the opposite hand, we speak of macro ecosystem when it involves ecosystems of great extension like for instance the ocean or a mountain.
It also can be classified consistent with the situation of the ecosystem. When it's within the water, it's called the aquatic ecosystem.
When are they ecosystems that also combine relationships within the earth are called air-terrestrial.
While the so-called transitional ecosystems are people who occur between water and land, like the banks of rivers or swamps.
Food chains
In an ecosystem, living things share the search for food to survive. Within the case of animals, the competition for food is combined with the necessity to not be devoured during this attempt.
In the case of plants, the necessity for food is given by water, natural light, air and minerals present within the soil. Either way, living things need the energy that provides them food.
The way during which energy passes from one animate thing to a different is named the "food chain". Generally, it goes like this: the sun's energy is absorbed by the plants.
Herbivores - animals that eat plants - get a number of this energy from the ingestion of plants. And within the higher levels of the chain, that is, for the carnivores, the energy that comes in is even better.
Ecosystem structure
An ecosystem also can be classified consistent with whether its structure is vertical or horizontal within the vertical structure, because the name suggests the best variety and complex.
Components of Ecosystem:
The ecosystem has two main components that are in constant communication with each other. They are biological and abiotic elements.
Ecosystem biological components
The living components of an ecosystem are called biological components. Some of these factors include plants, animals, fungi and bacteria. These biological components can be further categorized based on energy requirement sources. Producers, consumers and decomposers are in three broad categories of biological components.
Producers are plants of the ecosystem and can generate their own energy requirements through photosynthesis in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll. All other organisms depend on plants for their food and oxygen energy requirements.
Consumers include herbivores, carnivores and omnivores. Herbivores are plant-eating organisms. Carnivores feed on other organisms. Omnivore animals are animals that can eat both plant and animal tissues.
Decomposers are fungi and bacteria that are saprophytic plants. They eat rotting organic matter and convert it to nitrogen and carbon dioxide. Mycotrophs play an important role in recycling nutrients so that growers, or plants, can use them again.
Abiotic components of the ecosystem
Abiotic components are physical and / or chemical factors that act on living organisms in all parts of life. These are also called ecological factors. Chemical and physical factors are characteristic of the environment. Light, air, soil, nutrients, etc. form the abiotic elements of the ecosystem.
Abiotic factors vary by ecosystem. In aquatic ecosystems, abiotic factors include water pH, sunlight, turbidity, water depth, salt content, available nutrients, and dissolved oxygen. Similarly, abiotic components of terrestrial ecosystems include soil, soil type, temperature, rain, altitude, wind, nutrients, and sunlight.
Here, the sun is the energy source. Producers / plants use this energy to synthesize food within the presence of CO2 and chlorophyll. The energy from the sun goes through several chemical reactions and is converted into chemical energy.
Learn more about the biogeochemical cycle.
Herbivores rely on plants for their energy requirements. Carnivores then eat herbivores and other carnivores. At all levels, microorganisms break down dead and rotting organic matter. These decomposers release molecules into the environment in the form of chemicals after various chemical reactions. The chemical is used again by the producer and the cycle begins again.
In conclusion, ecosystems have a series of complex interactions that occur between biological and abiotic components. Ecosystem components are linked to each other through energy flow and nutrient cycle. Ecosystems do not have clear boundaries, but these interactions are affected even if one element is modified or deleted. It has the ability to ultimately affect the entire ecosystem.
Types of Ecosystem:
An ecosystem is a self-contained unit of living things and their non-living environment. The following chart shows the types of Natural Ecosystem −
Terrestrial ecosystem
Land ecosystems, sometimes referred to as biomes, are found on different continents of the globe and can be defined in different ways. There are many types, but they can all be divided into four main types.
Forest
Forest ecosystems range from arid tropical forests, rainforests, temperate forests, and northern forests (including taiga and coniferous ecosystems). These forests are defined by the climate they face.
Temperate forests are found in areas that experience seasonal changes from winter to summer. These forests are usually made up of trees that lose their leaves in the colder months and regain their leaves in the warmer months. These forest trees are also conifers that do not shed leaves, or a combination of the two.
Tropical forests are commonly found in warm and humid areas. Trees in these areas are generally tall and full of leaves. These forests are dense because their roots are spread throughout the soil.
Northern forests are found in areas with low temperatures. They usually experience short summers and long winters, and temperatures remain low. The trees found in these areas are usually evergreen-like conifers because they are good at coping with the cold.
Desert
Famous for its dunes and high temperatures, deserts are usually defined as areas with annual rainfall of less than 25 cm (10 inches). Water shortages are a major factor in determining whether an area will become a desert. The desert is also known for its windiness.
Temperature is not a major factor in deserts and can be found in cold and hot environments around the world. Limited water can come from rain, snow, or other means of precipitation. Places like the Sahara Desert are often hot, but places like the Gobi Desert can face extremely low temperatures during the winter months.
Given the harshness of the desert, it is easy to think that life cannot thrive there. However, many flora and fauna that have adapted to harsh life can be found above and below the deserts of the world.
Meadow
Grassland ecosystems include prairie, grassland, and savanna. Grasslands are distributed in temperate and tropical regions of the world. Like deserts, grasslands are primarily defined by the amount of water available. Grasslands typically have about 10 to 30 inches of rainfall each year. This means that it can also live in cold regions such as Siberian grasslands.
Grasslands are famous for the large amount of grass that covers the area, ranging from 60 to 90%. Few trees are spread throughout the ecosystem. In many grasslands, fire helps prevent trees from overtaking the area. The meadows are dotted with flowering plants.
These ecosystems are known for grazing and grazing animals that use them as food. These animals provide fertilizer and help stop the growth of more trees grazing throughout the ecosystem.
Tundra
Tundra is a commonly found ecosystem north of northern forests. These areas are known for their cold weather, as they are mostly covered with frozen underground soil and permafrost. They have no trees, their vegetation is short, and they grow only when sufficient topsoil has melted.
Precipitation in the tundra is similar to that in the desert. The organisms that live in this ecosystem are very adaptable to the harsh cold. Includes Reindeer, Snowy Owl, Goose and more. No reptiles are found in this area.
Tundra found in mountainous areas is commonly referred to as alpine tundra. The creatures that live here generally move because they move in the alpine tundra during warmer months and leave when it gets colder.
Aquatic ecosystem
Aquatic ecosystems represent ecosystems that inhabit the waters of the world. They can be divided into two main categories: marine ecosystems and freshwater ecosystems.
Aquatic ecosystems are shaped by key factors such as the amount of sunlight, water depth, water temperature, salt content, and sediment that different regions receive.
Marine
Marine ecosystems contain high levels of salinity and are composed of many of the world's oceans and other waters. Due to the biodiversity and scale of marine ecosystems, they are the richest ecosystems in the world.
The pelagic marine ecosystem represents the open ocean where marine life freely swims and floats. They are not attached to the bottom or surface. These are like plankton and whales.
Benthos marine ecosystems represent the bottom of the ocean where organisms attach to something or are very close to the bottom. These include coral and mangrove areas, each of which constitutes its own ecosystem.
Fresh water
Freshwater ecosystems are much less salty than marine ecosystems. They are usually represented as lakes, ponds, rivers, and other places where freshwater sources can be found.
Like marine ecosystems, freshwater ecosystems can be divided into two areas: static water, like lakes, and flowing water, like lakes.
In addition to fish, freshwater ecosystems also include insects, amphibians, algae, and other plants that distinguish them from marine ecosystems.
Estuary
The estuary is a special ecosystem because freshwater meets seawater. This ecosystem contains organisms that can survive in this chaotic environment.
Ecosystem structure:
Ecosystem structure is basically a description of the biological and physical characteristics of the environment, including the amount and distribution of nutrients in a particular habitat. It also provides information on the range of climatic conditions in the area.
From a structural point of view, all ecosystems are made up of the following basic components:
1. Non-biological components:
Ecological relationships manifest themselves in the physicochemical environment. Ecosystem abiotic components include basic inorganic and compounds such as soil, water, oxygen, calcium carbonate, phosphoric acid, and various organic compounds (organic activity or death by-products).
This includes physical factors and factors such as humidity, wind flow and solar radiation. The radiant energy of the sun is the only important source of energy for the ecosystem. The amount of abiotic components such as carbon, phosphorus, and nitrogen present at any given time is known as neglected or retained.
2. Biological components:
Biological components include all living organisms that exist in the environmental system.
From a nutritional point of view, biological components can be divided into two basic components.
(i) Autotrophic ingredients and
(ii) Heterotrophic components.
Autotrophic components include all green plants that fix the radiant energy of the sun and produce food from minerals. Heterotrophs include non-green plants and all animals that feed on autotrophs.
Therefore, the biological components of an ecosystem can be explained under the following three headings:
1. Producer (autotrophic ingredient),
2. Consumers, and
3. Decomposer or reducer and transformer.
The amount of biomass at any point in the ecosystem is known as a standing crop and is usually expressed as free energy in terms of raw weight, dry weight, or calories / meter.
Producers (autotrophs):
Producers are autotrophs, primarily green plants. They use the radiant energy of the sun in a photosynthetic process where carbon dioxide is assimilated and light energy is converted into chemical energy. Chemical energy is actually trapped in energy-rich carbon compounds. Oxygen is generated as a by-product of photosynthesis.
It is used by all living things for breathing. Pond algae and other aquatic plants, field grasses, and forest trees are examples of producers. Purple bacteria and chemosynthetic bacteria that assimilate carbon dioxide with solar energy only in the presence of organic compounds also belong to this category.
In the energy context, the term producer is misleading because producers produce carbohydrates rather than energy. Since they convert or convert radiant energy into chemical forms, E.J. Colmondi proposes a more appropriate alternative term, "transducer" or "transducer". Due to its widespread use, the term producer is still retained.
Consumer:
Living members of ecosystems that consume foods synthesized by producers are called consumers. This category includes all kinds of animals found in ecosystems.
Consumers have different classes or categories, including:
(a) First order consumer or primary consumer,
(b) Secondary or secondary consumer,
(c) Tertiary or tertiary consumers, and
(d) Parasites, scavengers, and scavengers.
(a) Primary consumer:
These are pure herbivores and rely on their producers or green plants for food. Rabbits, rodents, insects, deer, cows, buffalos and goats are some of the common herbivores in terrestrial ecosystems, including small crustaceans and mollusks in aquatic habitats. Elton (1939) named the ecosystem herbivores "core industrial animals." Herbivores serve as the main food source for carnivores.
(b) Secondary consumers:
These are carnivores and omnivores. Carnivores are carnivores, and omnivores are animals adapted to consume herbivores and plants as food. Examples of secondary consumers are sparrows, crows, foxes, wolves, dogs, cats and snakes.
(c) Tertiary consumers:
These are the top carnivores that prey on other carnivores, omnivores and herbivores. Lions, tigers, hawks, vultures, etc. are considered tertiary or top consumers.
(d) In addition to the various classes of consumers, consumers also include parasites, scavengers, and pesticides. Parasitic plants and animals utilize the biological tissues of various plants and animals. Scavengers and scavengers feed on carcasses of plants and animals.
Decomposer and Transformer:
Decomposers and transformers are the living components of the ecosystem, fungi and bacteria. Decomposers attack the carcasses of producers and consumers, breaking down complex organics into simpler compounds. Simple organic matter is attacked by another type of bacterium, a transformer that transforms these organic compounds into an inorganic form suitable for reuse by growers and green plants. Transformers and decomposers play a really important role in maintaining the dynamic nature of ecosystems.
Ecosystem function:
Ecosystems are individual structural, functional, and life-supporting environmental systems. The environmental system is made up of biological and non-biological components in the habitat. The biological components of an ecosystem include living things. Plants, animals, microorganisms and non-biological elements include minerals and energy.
Abiotic components provide a matrix for the synthesis and perpetuation of organic components (protoplasms). The process of synthesis and perpetuation involves energy exchange, which comes from the sun in the form of light or solar energy.
Therefore, every ecosystem has the following functional components:
(i) Inorganic components (air, water, inorganic salts),
(ii) Organisms (plants, animals and microorganisms), and
(iii) Energy input from the outside (sun).
These three interact to form an environmental system. Inorganic components are photosynthesized by green plants (primary producers) into organic structures that utilize solar energy in the process. Green plants are a source of energy for regeneration (herbivores) and a source of energy for carnivores (carnivores). All kinds of animals grow, add organic matter to their body weight, and their energy source is a complex organic compound that is ingested as food.
They are known as secondary producers. All living things, whether plants or animals in the ecosystem, have a certain lifespan and then die. Dead organic matter in plants and animals feeds on saprophytic microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, and many other animals. Saprobes eventually breaks down organic structure, destroying complex molecules and releasing inorganic components to the environment.
These organisms are known as decomposers. In the process of decomposition of organic molecules, the energy that combines inorganic components in the form of organic molecules is released and released to the environment as thermal energy. Therefore, in the ecosystem energy from the sun, the input is fixed by the plant and moves to the components of the animal.
Nutrients are removed from the substrate, deposited in plant and animal tissues, circulated from one feeding group to another, decomposed into soil, water and air, and then recycled. Ecosystems that operate in different habitats, such as deserts, forests, grasslands, and the ocean, are interdependent. The energy and nutrients of one ecosystem may enter another ecosystem and eventually all parts of the Earth are interrelated, each forming part of the overall system that maintains the functioning of the biosphere.
Therefore, the main steps in the operation of the ecosystem are
The major steps in the operation of an ecosystem involve not only the production, growth and death of biological components, but also the abiotic aspects of the habitat. It is now clear that both energy and nutrients move from producers to consumers, and ultimately to the levels of decomposers and transformers. This transition involves a gradual decrease in energy, but no reduction in nutrient content, indicating a cycle of abiotic to biological and vice versa.
The flow of energy is unidirectional. At the heart of ecosystem dynamics are two ecological processes: energy flow with the interaction of biological and abiotic components and mineral cycling. Figure 3.1 shows the major steps and components of the ecosystem.
Key takeaways:
- The term ecosystem was coined in 1935 by Oxford ecologist Arthur Tansley and embraces the interaction between the biological and abiotic elements of the environment at a particular location.
- An ecosystem or biome represents a single environment and all living (living) organisms and non-living (non-living) factors contained within or characterizing it.
- The function of the ecosystem is related to the flow of energy and the cycle of materials through and within the system.
- Characteristics of an Ecosystem.
- In an ecosystem, living things share the search for food to survive. Within the case of animals, the competition for food is combined with the necessity to not be devoured during this attempt.
- Vertical or horizontal within the vertical structure, because the name suggests the best variety and complex.
- An ecosystem also can be classified consistent with whether its structure is
- The ecosystem has two main components that are in constant communication with each other. They are biological and abiotic elements.
- The living components of an ecosystem are called biological components. Some
- Abiotic components are physical and / or chemical factors that act on living organisms in all parts of life
- An ecosystem is a self-contained unit of living things and their non-living environment.
- Temperate forests are found in areas that experience seasonal changes from winter to summer. These forests are usually made up of trees that lose their
- Marine ecosystems contain high levels of salinity and are composed of many of the world's oceans and other waters.
- The estuary is a special ecosystem because freshwater meets seawater
- Ecosystem structure is basically a description of the biological and physical characteristics of the environment, including the amount and distribution of nutrients in a particular habitat. It also provides information on the range of climatic conditions in the area.
- Decomposers and transformers are the living components of the ecosystem, fungi and bacteria
- Ecosystems are individual structural, functional, and life-supporting environmental systems.
Food chain
The food chain is an ideal representation of the flow of energy in an ecosystem. In the food chain, plants and producers are consumed only by primary consumers, and primary consumers are supplied only by secondary consumers. Producers who can produce their own food are called autotrophs. The food chain consists of her three major tropical levels: producer, consumer and decomposer. The energy efficiency of each tropical level is very low. Therefore, the shorter the food chain, the easier it is to access food.
The typical food chain in terrestrial ecosystems progresses as grass rats ——————-> snakes ————> hawks.
Food webs are more complex and interrelated at various tropical levels. Better survival is possible because organisms have multiple food choices. Hawks do not limit their food to snakes, snakes eat animals other than mice, and mice eat grass and grasshoppers. A more realistic picture of eating habits in an ecosystem is called a food web.
Food web:
Charles Elton introduced the concept of the food chain in 1927. This is called the food chain. Charles Elton explained the concept of the food web as follows:
Carnivores prey on herbivores. These herbivores get their energy from the sun. Later carnivores can also be prey to other carnivores. Animals form the end of this food chain until they reach a place free of enemies. There are chains of animals tied together by food, all dependent on plants in the long run.
This is called the food chain, and all food chains in the community are known as food webs. The food web is a graphical representation of the interspecific feeding connections of the ecological community. The food web contains the food chain of a particular ecosystem. Food webs are examples of various feeding technologies that connect ecosystems. Food webs also explain the flow of energy as a result of feeding relationships between species in the community. All food chains are interconnected, overlapped, and form a food web within an ecosystem. In the natural environment and ecosystems, food chain relationships are interrelated. These relationships are very complex because an organism can be part of multiple food chains.
Therefore, a web-like structure is formed instead of the linear food chain.
The network structure formed by connecting the food chains to each other is known as a food network.
The food web is an integral part of the ecosystem. These food webs allow organisms to obtain food from multiple types of organisms with lower nutritional levels.
All living things are responsible and are part of multiple food chains in a given ecosystem.
Ecological Pyramid:
- The nutritional levels of various organisms based on their ecological position from producer to end consumer are represented by the ecological pyramid.
- Food producers are at the bottom and top of the pyramid.
- Other consumer nutrition levels are in between.
- The pyramid contains a number of horizontal bars that indicate specific nutrition levels.
- The length of each bar represents the total number of individuals or biomass or energy at each trophic stage of the ecosystem.
- The Ecological Pyramid is a graphical representation outlined to show biomass or bioproductivity at each nutritional level of a given ecosystem.
- These are nutrition pyramids, energy pyramids, or food pyramids.
- Biomass is the amount of organisms or organic matter present in an organism.
- The Biomass Pyramid represents the amount of biomass and the amount present in the organism at each trophic level.
- The Productivity Pyramid shows the production or turnover of biomass.
- The ecological pyramid begins with a bottom producer, such as a green plant, and progresses through a variety of nutritional stages, including plant-eating herbivores, herbivore-eating carnivores, and those carnivorous-eating carnivores.
- The highest level is displayed at the top of the chain.
- The Biomass Ecological Pyramid represents the relationship between biomass and nutrient levels by quantifying the biomass present at each nutrient level in the ecosystem community at a particular time.
- This is a graphical representation of the biomass present per unit area at various nutritional stages.
- The flow of energy through the food chain occurs in a predictable way by entering the base of the food chain through photosynthesis in the primary producer and moving the food chain to higher nutritional levels.
- The transfer of energy from one nutritional stage to the next is inefficient.
- Analyzing how the number of organisms and biomass differ throughout the trophic stage can also be useful and productive.
- Both the number of organisms and the biomass at each trophic stage should be affected by the amount of energy applied to that trophic stage.
- Both the number of organisms and the biomass at each trophic stage should be affected by the amount of energy applied to that trophic stage.
- When there is a direct correlation between energy, numbers and biomass, a biomass pyramid and a number pyramid are formed.
- However, the relationship between energy, biomass, and number can be complicated by the growth morphology and size of the organism, and the ecological relationships that occur between nutritional stages.
Types of pyramids:
- The ecological pyramids are of three categories:
1. Pyramid of numbers:
The number pyramid represents the trophic population as the total number of individuals of different species present at each trophic stage. The pyramid of numbers may be upright or completely inverted, depending on the number of individuals present. The pyramid of numbers does not completely define the nutritional structure of an ecosystem, as it is very difficult to count all the organisms that exist there. Pyramid of Numbers-Upright: Meadow Ecosystem In this pyramid, populations decrease from low to high nutritional levels. Examples of numerical pyramids are grassland ecosystems and pond ecosystems. In the grass ecosystem, grass is abundant at the base (minimum nutrient level).
The next highest nutritional level is the primary consumer, the herbivore (eg grasshopper). The number of grasshoppers is less than the number of grasses. The next energy level is the primary carnivore (eg rat). Mice eat grasshoppers, so there are fewer than grasshoppers. The next highest nutritional level is secondary carnivores (eg snakes). They eat mice. The next highest nutritional level is the highest carnivorous animal. (Example-Hawk). When higher nutrition levels are reached, the number of individuals decreases from lower nutrition levels to higher nutrition levels. Pyramid of numbers – upside down: tree ecosystem In this type of pyramid, populations increase from low to high nutritional levels. For example, a tree ecosystem.
2. Biomass Pyramid:
The biomass pyramid represents the total dry weight of an organism. It is usually determined by collecting all organisms that individually invade each trophic stage and measuring their dry weight. This helps solve the problem of size differences as all types of organisms in the vegetative stage are weighed. The unit of measurement for biomass is g / m2. Species biomass is represented by raw or dry weight. Biomass measurements are considered to be more accurate in terms of dry weight. A constant mass of organisms at each trophic stage at a particular time, called a standing crop. Standing crops are measured as the mass (biomass) of an organism or the number per unit area. Biomass Pyramid: Upright The terrestrial biomass pyramid has a large base of primary producers, on which undernutrition levels reside. The producer's biomass, called autotrophs, is at maximum nutritional levels. Biomass from the base to the next nutritional stage, that is, the primary consumer is less than the producer. The next highest nutritional stage biomass, the secondary consumer, is less than the primary consumer. At the highest high nutrition levels, the amount of biomass is very low. On the other hand, in many aquatic ecosystems, the biomass pyramid may exist in an inverted form, while the aquatic ecosystem number pyramid is upright. Because it is a small phytoplankton that grows and reproduces very rapidly. Here, the biomass pyramid has a small base compared to the consumer's biomass, which actually exceeds the producer's biomass, and the pyramid is represented in the opposite way.
3. Pyramid of Energy:
The energy pyramid represents the flow of energy from undernutrition levels to high nutrition levels. There is a significant loss of energy between the flow of energy from one organism to another. This loss of energy occurs in the form of heat. Primary producers, such as autotrophs, contain more available energy.
The least energy available to tertiary consumers.
Therefore, the shorter the food chain, the more energy is available at the highest nutritional stages. The energy pyramid is considered to be the best way to compare the functional roles of the trophic stages in ecosystems. The energy pyramid represents the amount of energy at each nutritional stage and the loss of energy that occurs during the transfer to another nutritional stage. Therefore, the pyramid is always upwards and has a large energy base at the bottom. An ecosystem says he receives 1000 calories of light energy a day. Most of the energy is not absorbed by plants. Some energy is reflected in the universe. Green plants utilize a small portion of the absorbed energy, of which the plant consumes a portion for breathing, and out of 1000 calories, only 100 calories (10%) are stored as energy-rich materials. .. Now suppose an animal eats a plant that contains 100 calories of food energy. The animal uses part of it for its metabolism and stores only 10 calories as food energy.
Key takeaways:
- The food chain is an ideal representation of the flow of energy in an ecosystem
- The typical food chain in terrestrial ecosystems progresses as grass rats ——————-> snakes ————> hawks.
- Charles Elton introduced the concept of the food chain in 1927. This is called the food chain.
- The network structure formed by connecting the food chains to each other is known as a food network.
- The nutritional levels of various organisms based on their ecological position from producer to end consumer are represented by the ecological pyramid.
- The Productivity Pyramid shows the production or turnover of biomass.
- He ecological pyramids are of three categories:
- The number pyramid represents the trophic population as the total number of individuals of different species present at each trophic stage.
- The biomass pyramid represents the total dry weight of an organism
- The energy pyramid represents the flow of energy from undernutrition levels to high nutrition levels.
Environment is derived from the French word Environment, meaning siege or siege. The environment is a complex of many variables that surrounds humans as well as living things. Environmental studies describe the interrelationships between living things, the environment, and everything. Factors that affect life on Earth, such as atmospheric conditions, food chain, and water cycle etc. It is a basic science about our earth and its daily activities, so this science is important for all.
Scope of environmental survey
There are multiple multi-level scopes in the field of environmental research. This study is important
And it's needed for everyone, not just children. The scope is summarized as follows:
1. This study is about various renewable energies.
Non-renewable resources in the area. Qualities or possibilities, patterns of use, and the balance of various resources that can be used in the future in a country's condition is analyzed the study.
2. Provide knowledge about ecosystems and causality.
3. Provide the necessary information about biodiversity abundance and potential dangers species of plants, animals and microorganisms in the environment.
4. This study will help you understand the causes and consequences of the main causes naturally.
Induced disasters (floods, earthquakes, landslides, cyclones, etc.) and pollution and their countermeasures minimize the impact.
5. This allows you to evaluate alternative responses to environmental issues. Another course of action.
6. This survey enables environmentally savvy citizens (environmental laws, rights, make appropriate judgments and decisions for protection (rules, laws, etc.) Improvement of the earth.
7. This study reveals issues such as overpopulation, health and hygiene and the role of art, science and technology to eliminate / minimize evil from society.
8. This study identifies, develops, and develops appropriate and indigenous eco-friendly skills, technology for various environmental problems.
9. It teaches citizens the need for sustainable use of resources what has been passed down from generation to generation is passed on to the next generation without sacrificing quality.
10. This study allows you to put your theoretical knowledge into practice and use multiple environments.
Importance of environmental research
Environmental research is based on a comprehensive view of various environmental systems. It aims to empower citizens to do scientific work and find practical solutions to current problems.
Environment issues. Citizens acquire the ability to analyze environmental parameters such as 2.nInteractions between aquatic, terrestrial and atmospheric systems and their biosphere and anthrosphere.
Importance
- The world's population is growing at an alarming rate, especially in developing countries.
- The Earth's natural resource reserves are limited.
- Advances in methods and technologies for utilizing natural resources.
- E sources are overused and there is no prospect of leaving them to others future generation.
- Unplanned development of natural resources leads to pollution of all kinds and at all levels.
- Pollution and degraded environments have serious implications for the health of all living things on the planet including men.
- People need to be jointly responsible and start with the deteriorating environment. Take appropriate action to keep the Earth apart.
- Education and training are needed to save biodiversity and species extinction.
- Coupled with industry, urban areas are a major source of pollution.
- Increase the number and area of extinct populations in protected areas so that wildlife is protected at least these sites are protected.
- This survey helps people understand the complexity and needs of the environment. People adapt appropriate activities and pursue sustainable development harmony with the environment.
- This study motivates students to participate in community activities and various activities like environmental and management projects. It's time to readjust the education system and curriculum for these needs
- Environmental studies take an interdisciplinary approach to the study of human interactions.
With the natural environment. It integrates different approaches in the humanities and social sciences. Science, biological science, and physical science, and apply these approaches to research and environmental concerns.
n. Environmental studies are an important way to change knowledge values, behaviors and lifestyles needed to achieve sustainability and stability at home and abroad country.
Key takeaways:
- Environment is derived from the French word Environment, meaning siege or siege.
- . Environmental studies describe the interrelationships between living things, the environment, and everything.
- There are multiple multi-level scopes in the field of environmental research. This study is important
- This study is about various renewable energies
- This allows you to evaluate alternative responses to environmental issues. Another course of action.
- This study allows you to put your theoretical knowledge into practice and use multiple environments
- Environmental research is based on a comprehensive view of various environmental systems. It aims to empower citizens to do scientific work and find
- Unplanned development of natural resources leads to pollution of all kinds and at all levels
- Education and training are needed to save biodiversity and species extinction.
- Environmental studies take an interdisciplinary approach to the study of human interaction
Case Study
The Bhopal Gas Tragedy
Title
Disaster
Date of disaster
Nature of disaster
Bhopal Gas Disaster
Bhopal Disaster
3 December 1984
Human error
DISASTER PHASE:
Disaster phase:
The Bhopal disaster, also known as the Bhopal gas tragedy, was a gas leak in India, which is considered one of the worst industrial disasters in the world. It occurred at Union Carbide India Limited (UCIL)'s pesticide plant in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India, on the night of December 2-3, 1984. Methyl isocyanate and other chemicals leaked from the factory, exposing hundreds of thousands of people. According to an official government statement in 2006, the leak caused 558,125 injuries, of which 38,478 were temporarily partially injured and about 3,900 were severely and permanently disabled. .. 170,000 people were treated in hospitals and temporary clinics. 2,000 buffalo, goats and other animals were collected and buried. Gas clouds were composed primarily of matter that was denser than the surrounding air, staying close to the ground and spreading outward through the surrounding community. The initial effects of exposure were coughing, vomiting, severe eye irritation, and choking sensation. Due to their height, short children and others inhaled higher concentrations.
Impact of disaster:
Real disasters cause a lot of damage to people in terms of loss of life and property. This direct result can be called the "first disaster." The effects of the first disaster cause another wave of destruction caused by a series of events associated with the first disaster, resulting in indirect damage to those who are away from the first disaster. This can be called a "second disaster."
1 Physical – Health Impact:
Gas clouds were composed primarily of matter that was denser than the surrounding air, staying close to the ground and spreading outward through the surrounding community. The first effects of exposure were coughing, vomiting, severe eye irritation, and choking sensation.
Thousands of seriously affected survivors are still severely injured in their lungs, unable to move, and even a few minutes of active walking exhale to their knees.
Women have unusual gynecological problems and are still giving birth to distorted children. Acute symptoms were burning sensation in the airways and eyes, shortness of breath, stomach pain, and vomiting.
Findings at autopsy revealed changes in the kidneys as well as lungs and fatty degeneration in the liver. Stillbirth rates increased by up to 300% and neonatal mortality increased by approximately 200%.
2. Social and emotional impacts:
Health problems have serious social consequences. Health problems include gynecological and endocrine complications, high levels of abnormal menstruation and reproductive difficulties, and a high incidence of miscarriage.
Female children affected by gas and water also suffer from a variety of congenital malformations, mental and physical disabilities. In certain situations in the underprivileged, religiously conservative Indian community, reproductive disorders and chronic illnesses make many women unwanted marriage partners and seriously socially stigmatize them.
In fact, the inability to conceive a healthy child can force many women to live without marriage and may not be able to achieve financial stability.
3 Cause of dither:
This can be prevented with caution when it occurs.
Working conditions:
Attempts to reduce costs have affected factory employees and their terms. Kurzman said, "Cut means to relax the strictness of quality control and relax the safety regulations. Pipe leaked? Do not replace. Employees said: They can be done at less cost. Promotions have been suspended, seriously impacting employee morale and driving some of the most skilled employees ... Elsewhere. "Employees Members were forced to use English manuals, but very few understood the language. The maintenance supervisor was not assigned to the night shift, and instrument readings were done every two hours instead of his previous one-hour reading.
Equipment and safety regulations:
The MIC tank alarms had not worked for four years.
There was only one manual back-up system, compared to a four-stage system used in the US.
The flare tower and the vent gas scrubber had been out of service for five months before the disaster. The gas scrubber therefore did not treat escaping gases with sodium hydroxide (caustic soda), which might have brought the concentration down to a safe level. Furthermore, the flare tower itself was improperly designed and could
Only hold one-quarter of the volume of gas that was leaked in 1984.
To decrease energy costs, the refrigeration system, designed to inhibit the volatilization of MIC, had been left idle-the MIC was kept at 20 degrees Celsius (room temperature), not the 4.5 degrees advised by the manual, and some of the coolant was being used elsewhere.
The steam boiler, intended to clean the pipes, was out of action for unknown reasons.
Slip-blind plates that would have prevented water from pipes being cleaned from leaking into the MIC tanks through faulty valves were not installed. Their installation had been omitted from the cleaning checklist.
Water sprays designed to “knock down” gas leaks were poorly designed-set to 13 meters and below, they could not spray high enough to reduce the concentration of escaping gas.
Carbon steel valves were used at the factory, even though they corrode when exposed to acid. On the night of the disaster, a leaking carbon steel valve was found, allowing water to enter the MIC tanks. The pipe was not repaired because it was believed it would take too much time and be too expensive.
UCC admitted in their own investigation report that most of the safety systems were not functioning on the night of December 3, 1984.
RESPONSE PHASE
This is the period that immediately follows the occurrence of the disaster. The ambulances and medical personnel arrive, remove the injured for transportation to medical camps or hospitals and provide first aid and life support.
In Bhopal case
Medical staffs were unprepared for the thousands of casualties.
Doctors and hospitals were not informed of proper treatment methods for MIC gas inhalation. They were told to simply give cough medicine and eye drops to their patients, within a few days,
Trees in the vicinity became barren. 2,000 bloated animal carcasses had to be disposed “Operation Faith”: On 16 December, the tanks 611 and 619 were emptied off the remaining MIC. This led to a second mass evacuation from Bhopal.
Formal statements were issued that air, water, vegetation and foodstuffs were safe within the city. At the same time, people were informed that poultry was unaffected, but were warned not to consume fish.
MITIGATION:
The implementation of mitigation strategies can be considered a part of the recovery process if applied after a disaster occurs.
1 Disaster spread and control:
Chemicals discarded at the plant continue to leak and pollute the groundwater.
Contamination at the site and proximate area was not caused by the gas leakage. In 1991 the municipal authorities declared water from over 100 wells unfit for drinking.
UCC’s laboratory tests in 1989 revealed that soil and water samples collected from near the factory were toxic to fish. Twenty one areas inside the plant were reported to be highly polluted. In 1994 it was reported that 21% of the factory premises were seriously contaminated with chemicals.
Studies made by Greenpeace and others from soil, groundwater, wellwater and vegetables from the residential areas around UCIL and from the UCIL factory area show contamination with a range of toxic heavy metals and chemical compounds.
Equipment and Safety Regulations:
The MIC tank alarm has been out of service for 4 years.
There was only one manual backup system compared to the four-stage system used in the United States.
The flare tower and bent gas scrubber had been shut down five months before the disaster. Therefore, gas scrubbers did not treat the escaped gas with sodium hydroxide (caustic soda), which can reduce the concentration to safe levels. In addition, the flare tower itself is improperly designed,
Holds only a quarter of the amount of gas leaked in 1984.
To reduce energy costs, refrigeration systems designed to reduce MIC volatilization remained idle. They are being used elsewhere.
A steam boiler for cleaning pipes was not working for unknown reasons.
He was not fitted with a non-slip plate to prevent water from the pipes being cleaned from leaking into the MIC tank through a defective valve. Those installations were excluded from the cleaning checklist.
Watering sprays designed to "knock down" gas leaks were not set below 13 meters and could not be sprayed high enough to reduce the concentration of escaping gas.
Although it corrodes when exposed to acid, carbon steel valves were used in the factory. On the night of the disaster, a leaking carbon steel valve was found and water entered the MIC tank. Repairs to the pipes were not done because they were thought to be time consuming and too expensive.
The UCC acknowledged in its own research report that most safety systems were not functioning on the night of December 3, 1984.
Correspondence stage
It is the time immediately after the disaster. Ambulances and medical personnel arrive to rescue the injured and transport them to medical camps and hospitals for first aid and life support.
For Bhopal
Medical staff were unprepared for thousands of casualties.
Doctors and hospitals were unaware of the appropriate treatment for MIC gas inhalation. They were told to give the patient cough medicine and eye drops within a few days.
The nearby trees have died. It was necessary to dispose of the carcasses of 2,000 bloated animals. "Operation Face": On December 16th, tanks 611 and 619 were emptied from the rest of his MIC. This led to his second major evacuation from Bhopal.
An official statement has been issued that the city's air, water, plants and food are safe. At the same time, poultry were unaffected but warned not to eat fish.
Mitigation:
The implementation of mitigation strategies can be considered part of the recovery process if applied after a disaster.
1 Disaster spread and control:
Chemicals discarded at the factory are leaking and continue to contaminate groundwater.
There was no contamination of the site or its surroundings due to gas leaks. In 1991, city officials declared that he was not drinking water from more than 100 wells.
His UCC laboratory tests in 1989 revealed that soil and water samples taken near the factory were toxic to fish. His 21 locations in the factory were reported to be highly contaminated. In 1994, 21% of the factory premises were reported to be severely contaminated with chemicals.
Studies conducted on soil, groundwater, well water, and vegetables in residential areas around UCIL and around UCIL factories, such as by Greenpeace, have shown contamination with various toxic heavy metals and chemical compounds.
Reportedly, the substances detected were naphtholnaphthalene, alphanaphthol, mercury, organochlorine, chromium, copper, nickel, lead, hexachloroethane, hexachlorobutadiene, pesticide HCH (BHC), volatile organic compounds, and halo organic compounds. Is. Many of these pollutants were also detected in breast milk.
Disaster recovery
The purpose of the recovery phase is to restore the affected area to its previous state. In Bhopal, community participation is not only essential, but also necessary, which is evident in many different organizations and projects that have evolved from the tragedy of the gas disaster. Pictures of very small buildings in Bhopal. In 1985, trying to deal with the overwhelming economic impact of the world economy,
Following the Union Carbide gas disaster, the government set up approximately 50 training / production centers in various parts of Bhopal to provide gas-affected women with vocational training such as sewing and stationery manufacturing. Thousands of Bopari women have been hired at these sewing and stationery centers in hopes of improving economic conditions as many Bopari women have become widowed due to tragedy or lost their husbands due to gas. I did.
Preparation before a disaster:
Previous warnings and accidents:
A series of advance warnings and accidents related to the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications have occurred.
In 1976, he had two unions react due to pollution inside the factory.
In 1981, workers were sprinkled with phosgene. In a panic, he stripped off his mask and inhaled a large amount of phosgene gas. He died 72 hours after him.
A phosgene leak occurred in January 1982, exposing 24 workers and forcing them to be hospitalized. No workers were ordered to wear protective masks.
In February 1982, a leak from MIC affected his 18 employees.
In August 1982, a chemist contacted his MIC in liquid, injuring more than 30% of his body.
In October 1982, MIC, methylcarbalyl chloride, chloroform and hydrochloric acid leaked. In an attempt to stop the leak, MIC's supervisor suffered severe chemical burns and his two other workers were severely exposed to gas.
From 1983 to 1984, material leaks of MIC, chlorine, monomethylamine, phosgene, and carbon tetrachloride (sometimes in combination) occurred regularly at his MIC plant.
A report issued months before the incident by scientists within Union Carbide Corporation warned of the possibility of almost the same accident that occurred in Bhopal. The report was ignored and did not reach the senior staff.
Union Carbide has been warned by American experts who have visited the plant since 1981 about the possibility of a "runaway reaction" in the MIC storage tank. Local Indian authorities have warned several times that the company has problems since 1979. Again, these warnings have been ignored.
Post-disaster preparation: Rehabilitation
It is at this time that the victims actually feel the effects of the disaster. Now they are aware of the implications of the loss they are suffering from. At this stage, support from governments and other non-governmental organizations is essential, so they need the resources and facilities to return to their homes, pursue professions, and sustain their lives on their own. I will. Eventually it tapers. This is called rehabilitation.
Economic recovery:
Emergency relief was decided two days after his tragedy. Remedies began in 1985, with short-term food distribution and distribution cards.
The Madhya Pradesh government's finance department allocated him Rs 874 million (US $ 15.82 million) in July 1985 to rescue victims.
A monthly Wi Wi Wi women's pension of 200 INR (US $ 3.62) (then he received 750 INR (US $ 13.58)) was paid.
Since 1990, her entire family born before the disaster has been paid a provisional remedy for her INR200 (US $ 3.62).
The final compensation for personal injury (including provisional remedies) was for most of her INR 25,000 (US $ 452.5). The average death benefit payment was 62,000 INR (US $ 1,122.2).
On June 24, 2010, the Federal Cabinet of the Government of India approved a 1,265 core (US $ 228.97 million) aid package. It is funded by Indian taxpayers through the government.
Vocational rehabilitation
Of the 50 planned gas victims' work sheds, 33 were launched. All but one were closed by his 1992.
In 1986, the MP government invested in the special industrial area of Bhopal. Of the 200 planned work sheds, 152 were built. In 2000, 16 was partially functional.
It is estimated that less than 100 gas victims have found regular jobs under government plans, with 50,000 people in need of alternative jobs.
Residential rehabilitation
His 2,486 apartments in two-story and four-story buildings were built in the "Widows Colony" on the outskirts of Bhopal. Water did not reach the upper floors. I couldn't keep a cow. Infrastructure such as buses and schools has been absent for at least 10 years.
Healthcare
Immediately after the disaster, the medical system was overloaded tremendously. Within a few weeks, the provincial government set up many hospitals, clinics, and mobile units in gas-affected areas.
The Government of India is primarily focused on increasing hospital-based services for gas victims. After the earthquake, several hospitals were built.
The Bhopal Memorial Hospital and Research Center (BMHRC) is a 350-bed super-specialized hospital. Heart surgery and hemodialysis are performed. The main areas of specialization that are lacking are gynecology, obstetrics and pediatrics. Eight mini-units (Outreach Health Center) have been launched. Until 2006, free medical care for gas victims was to be provided. Management is facing strike problems and the quality of care is being challenged.
Sambhavna Trust is a charity registered in 1995. The clinic offers gas victims modern, free Ayurvedic treatments.
Environmental repair
There are plans to improve water supply to provide safe drinking water to residents around the UCC plant.
In December 2008, the Madhya Pradesh High Court decided to incinerate toxic waste in Henkleshwar, Gujarat. This led to protests from activists across India. [48] On June 8, 2012, the Bhopal Toxic Waste Incineration Center agreed that he would pay 2.5 billion rupees (US $ 4.53 million) to dispose of waste from the Union Carbide chemical plant in Germany.
On August 9, 2012, the Supreme Court instructed the Federal and Madhya Pradesh governments to take immediate action to dispose of toxic waste in and around the Union Carbide plant within six months. Did.
Five. Conclusion:
Events in Bhopal have revealed that growing industrialization in developing countries can have terrifying consequences without the simultaneous evolution of safety regulations. Even without enforcement, international standards may provide standards for measuring the performance of individual companies engaged in dangerous activities such as the manufacture of pesticides and other toxic chemicals in India. In developing world situations such as industrialized countries, prevention should specifically include risk mitigation in plant location and design and safety legislation.
Local governments clearly cannot allow industrial facilities to be located in urban areas, even as land use evolves over time. Industry and government need to provide adequate financial support to communities to provide medical and other necessary services to reduce morbidity, mortality, and material loss in the event of an occupational accident. ..
The Bhopal disaster could have changed the nature of the chemical industry and reconsidered the need to produce such potentially harmful products in the first place. Safety procedures were minimal, and neither American owners nor local managers seemed to consider them necessary. When a disaster occurred, there was no disaster plan that could be put into action.
We need to introduce a system of law that imposes responsibility on them for higher safety standards. Multinational companies operating in India must agree to be subject to the jurisdiction of both civil and criminal Indian courts as a condition of doing business. They must agree to be responsible for the actions of the subsidiary and must not disown them like mice leaving a sinking ship
Prevention is better than treatment. The lesson learned from this man-made disaster is to understand its nature and implement a better disaster management system before it occurs. This nightmare could have been avoided if Union Carbide India Limited was able to properly prevent it on time when a series of accidents occurred frequently in the Bhopal project.
After all, the dead may not have been so unlucky. The end was horrifying, but at least the nightmares were short.
Reference:
1. Https://www.embibe.com/exams/natural-resources/
2. Https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/resources-conservation
3. Https://ugc.ac.in/oldpdf/modelcurriculum/Chapter2.pdf
4. Https://www.saviom.com/blog/what-is-resource-utilization-and-its-significance/
5. Https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/