Unit 3

ENGLISH

3.1.          Listening Skills: Process of Listening, Tips for Effective Listening

Definition and Process

The process of listening is receiving a language through the ears. It involves the identification of the sounds of speech and processing them into words and sentences. Listening is the ability to precisely receive and interpret messages in the communication process.

Listening is one of the most important factors to all effective communication. Without effective listening ability, messages may be easily misunderstood. Therefore, as a result, sometimes communication breaks down and the sender of the message can easily become frustrated or irritated.

While listening, we use our ears to receive individual sounds (letters, stress, rhythm and pauses) and our brain converts these into messages that mean something to us.

Listening, like any other communication skill such as reading, writing or speakinge requires focus and attention. It is a skill that some people need to work at harder than others. People who have difficulty concentrating are typically poor listeners. Listening in a second language requires even greater focus.

Importance of Listening Skills

It is often contested that speaking as a skill is more important than listening which is a common misconception. Listening is as important a skill as speaking if not more, as it is only by listening one can learn proper pronunciation and intonation of words which allows him to speak fluently.

Oral language skills including listening comprehension also are important for writing development. Although oral language skills aren't explicitly laid out in the developmental models of writing, they are essential component skills as writing requires generation of ideas, which then need to be translated into oral language.

Below are some areas where listening skills can prove to be extremely important:

Academic Purpose

When one focuses on the material presented in a classroom, they will be able to identify not only the words used in a lecture but their emphasis and their more complex meanings. They will take better notes, and will more accurately remember the instructor’s claims, information, and conclusions. Many times, instructors provide oral cues about what is likely to appear in an examination, specific expectations for assignments and instructions on specific study material, hence active listening can be extremely beneficial.

Social Purpose

In a social setting, if a person genuinely listens to other people, they are often considered to be a good friend. Most people prefer "good listeners" over people who won't stop giving advice without even listening to a word the speaker is saying. Many people just wait for their turn to speak instead of trying to understand what someone is saying to them. Therefore, listening skills also help with one's social relationships.

Perceptual Purpose

A person who has the ability to listen properly is often considered an intelligent person. It is essential to let someone finish their thoughts before giving voice to one's own opinions. Listening silently while someone is speaking gives them a sign that they are being heard. This creates an image of a smart individual in the mind of the speaker.

Important for Public Speaking

When one listen's well to others without interrupting, they begin gathering up on more impressive ways to organize and present arguments. Which helps one understand how people think and what are the factors that influence them. While speaking publicly this can be helpful as one can assume how people will react to a certain argument. This also helps in connecting with people in general and potentially influencing them.

Types of Listening

There are a few different methods of effective listening, and each one is suited to specific circumstances. Here are descriptions of the main types of listening and the scenarios in which you would be likely to use them:

1. Discriminative listening:

Discriminative listening is the first form of listening humans develop as babies. This type of listening does not focus on words but rather the tone of voice and other subtleties of sound to understand meaning and intention. Babies don’t understand words, but they rely on their discriminative listening to understand who is speaking and what mood is being communicated. As an adult, you may find yourself relying on discriminative listening when people around you are speaking a foreign language that you don’t understand. Though you may lack the language skills to understand the words being spoken, you can rely on the tone of voice and inflection to derive a vague meaning. When you can only rely on discriminative listening, you may turn to visual stimuli. The mannerisms, facial expressions, and body language of a speaker help clue you in to the speaker’s message.

Comprehensive listening is the next level of critical listening skills that humans usually develop in early childhood. Comprehensive listening requires language skills and a grasp of basic vocabulary to understand what is being communicated through by the speaker. Comprehensive listening covers most other forms of listening that critical listeners utilize. Through the course of their day-to-day lives, people use comprehensive listening paired with verbal cues to understand what messages are being communicated to them.

Informational listening (or informative listening) is the type of listening practices during the process of learning. Informational listening builds upon basic comprehensive listening and requires a high level of concentration and engagement to understand new concepts and comprehend technical jargon. Informational listening has less to do with the emotional content of what is being communicated and more to do with critical thinking and following a logical sequence as it is communicated. When you try to learn important skills that are being taught to you, it’s vital that you pay attention and use informational listening skills.

Critical listening is the style of listening people use when they are trying to analyse and judge complex information that is being communicated to them. You might use critical listening if you’re problem-solving on the job and trying to decide if you agree with a proposal being floated by one of your co-workers. The word “critical” has multiple meanings, but in this case it simply means that you are evaluating information—not necessarily passing judgment.

Biased listening (or selective listening) is a type of selective listening where the listener only tries to understand what they want to hear. Biased listening is different from critical listening because the listener is not actually listening to the speaker's opinions but instead trying to confirm their own opinions. People generally do not realize that they are using a biased listening process. Biased listening can lead to a falsification of facts in the mind of a listener who is not in harmony with to what a speaker intends to communicate.

Sympathetic listening is an emotionally-driven type of relationship listening, wherein a listener processes the feelings and emotions of a speaker and tries to provide support and understanding in return. You might use sympathetic listening when a child tells you about trouble they had at school. In this case sympathetic listening is used to make the child feel heard and provide them with comfort and support. Sympathetic is useful in trying to establish a deep connection with another person, especially when that person is experiencing adversity.

Therapeutic or empathetic listening is a listening process wherein a listener tries to understand the point of view of a speaker and imagines themselves directly in the speaker’s position. Empathetic listening (sometimes referred to as empathic listening) goes a step further than sympathetic listening in that an empathic listener will relate to the speaker’s experience as if it were their own.

Tips for Effective Listening

There are two ways in which a person can listen to something being said to them – active and passive. Passive listening is listening without giving the speaker your full attention. Passive listening is like not listening at all therefore one must always give the speaker their full attention and practice active listening in order to fully grasp the meaning of what the speaker wants to say.

Below are some ways in which one can improve their listening comprehension skills:

1. Listening to Podcasts and Audio Books

One can start listening to podcasts or audio books with comprehensible difficulty level, meaning the ones which one can already understand 60-80%. This is necessary as listening to material far above one’s skill level will only leave them dazed and confused.

2.     Listening to the Appropriate Material

Listening to what one enjoys is also important. It would build up motivation to continue exercising their listening skills. If you are interested in a particular genre of a book or a particular speaker then try listening to them first as they would be able to keep you more interested and engaged in the subject.

3.     Entertainment is a Good Source of Learning

One should start watching English content beginning with short clips and move on to full movies and shows in English along with subtitles. This will help them get familiar with native pronunciation and syntax of different kinds of sentences. While watching with subtitles one should always avoid reading the subtitles beforehand and should read them as the words are being spoken.

4.     Listen and Re-listen

Native English is fast spoken. Therefore, it is necessary to acquaint oneself with different speeds in spoken English. To do this, one should listen and re-listen the same material at different speeds while trying to focus on the different sounds, words and their meanings.

5.     Taking Notes

When listening to an audio, it is often helpful to take notes.

While practicing listening, the following steps will help to understand the content more clearly:

Step 1: Write down the topic of the audio

Step 2: If there are multiple speakers, their names are to be written down (e.g. Speaker 1, Speaker 2)

Step 3: Write down the crux of what each speaker is trying to convey. It is even better to use points for their central ideas.

Step 4: If you frequently hear a word you do not understand, try to write it down so you can look it up later

Step 5: If there's a word or sentence you find interesting, write it down so that you can practice using it in your own conversations.

6.     Conversing with Native Speakers

If possible, try talking to native speakers as they will have good pronunciation and intonation. At first it would be difficult to understand because of their accents and word stress but with more practice you will be able to successfully communicate with them. Conversing also has another additional advantage, it will not only help with your listening comprehension but will also help you learn how to speak the language with proper pronunciation.

3.2.          Speaking Skills: Basics of Spoken English, English Sounds, Rhythm and Intonation, Telephonic Skills, Group Communication

Basics of Spoken English

Language involves both the ability to comprehend spoken and written words and to create communication in real time when we speak or write. Most languages are oral, generated through speaking. Speaking involves a variety of complex cognitive, social, and biological processes including operation of the vocal cords, and the coordination of breath with movements of the throat, mouth, and tongue.

The use of language changes considerably depending upon the channel of communication. For example, it is easier to use multiple independent and subordinate clauses along with complicated vocabulary while writing but it becomes difficult to do the same while speaking. When speaking one tends to use a simpler form of the language.

There are certain elements of a language which only come into play while speaking such as pronunciation, intonation, word stress and accent. If one is already familiar with a certain language, learning the proper spoken form of another language can be a difficult task as it would involve re-structuring one’s whole biological structure of speaking.

For non-native English speakers, the influence of their first language can be a very big problem when it comes to pronunciation. If up to later age, the sole language we speak is our mother tongue, tons of the speech patterns get set in the human brain. Each language has peculiar sounds and combinations of consonants and vowels. If we start speaking multiple languages from infancy, we easily retain the pliability of uttering sounds from different language systems. Our brains can be easily trained for various sounds from different languages. But if we don't receive that training in our childhood, our brains get familiar with the sounds on just one language and at a later stage it becomes very difficult to coach the brain for a completely different audio system needed for the second language.

Spoken language usually involves of more use of personal pronouns, shorter thought units than written language that are easier to follow, more repetition of words and phrases to emphasise ideas, use of colloquial words and contractions to create a lively conversational tone, use of familiar vocabulary to ensure that the listener understands what the speaker is saying and fewer references to previously stated information.

Importance of Spoken Language

The most effective way to communicate is through the medium of speech. Thus, spoken language is a vitally important method of communication.

The four language skills include listening, speaking, reading, and writing which are all equally important and interconnected. Proficiency in each skill is an essential requirement to become a well-rounded communicator, but the capability to speak in a language skilfully, provides the speaker with several distinct advantages. The capacity articulate words together in an exceedingly meaningful way to reflect thoughts, opinions, and feelings provides the speaker with these important advantages:

Ability to inform, persuade, and direct. Business managers, educators, military leaders, lawyers, and politicians, among others, look for master communicators who have a certain command over the spoken language. Speaking clearly and confidently can gain the eye of an audience, providing the golden opportunity for the speaker to make the message known. An effective speaker gains and holds the attention of an audience, with well-chosen words during a well-delivered presentation, forming a message that's effective, informative, and understood.

Ability to stand out from the rest. When one thinks of speaking skills, one tends to consider it as a standard skill. The ability to stand before others and speak effectively isn't a commonly possessed ability. Many people are deathly terrified of public speaking; others have little ability to formulate thoughts into sentences and then deliver those words in a believable way. At any given moment the globe has precious few with the speaking talents of, say, Churchill or John F. Kennedy. A speaker whose skills are honed and developed with constant application and diligence can stand out.

Ability to benefit derivatively. Well-developed verbal skills can increase one’s negotiation skills. Self-confidence is improved. A growing sense of comfort comes from speaking in front of larger and bigger audiences. A reputation for excellence in speaking can accrue over time, thereby imparting a definite credibility to the speaker.

Career enhancement. Employers have always valued the power to talk well. It is, and always will be, a vital skill, and well worth the effort in fully developing.

Personal satisfaction. Speakers who have experienced a connection with an appreciative audience through a well-composed and well-delivered presentation often find a deep level of fulfilment that's seldom achieved in other forms of communication. The normal sense of nervous tension can give way to feelings of accomplishment and exuberance when an audience expresses its outward appreciation to a speaker. It’s a reward, of sorts, for all the toil and preparation that goes into honing your skills.

Spoken language is important for career success, but under no circumstances limited to one’s professional aspirations. Spoken language can enhance one’s personal life and thereby bring forth the well-rounded growth that one must always all seek.

Techniques for Effective Speaking

Below are some guidelines to learn how to properly employ spoken language in communication:

1. Staying True to Oneself:

Watching other efficient speakers is a good way to learn and practice but everybody is different. That means that there aren't any rules for what makes an efficient orator. Part of being an authentic orator is knowing the way to be yourself when underneath the spotlight. Acting like yourself instead of trying to imitate somebody else allows you to behave more organically, which may be a boon when attempting to connect with an audience.

2.     Knowing the Purpose of Speaking:

One should always know whether they want to influence, educate or inspire the audience and depending upon that one should decide how to formulate their speech.

3.     Expanding Knowledge Base and Vocabulary:

Reading about various topics is a great way to expand one’s horizons. ‘Always keep learning’ should be the motto of every speaker. The speaker should be updated with current affairs and should have a vast vocabulary to incorporate within his speeches.

4.     Playing to One’s Strengths:

Some people are good at storytelling others are good at using information to influence people. One should find out his strengths and practice them time and time again. The most efficient speakers are ready to effectively identify their strengths and use those strengths as tools to make a presence that's authentic and relatable.

5.     Improvisation:

While speaking it is rare that things go exactly as planned. Therefore, one should practice how to improvise when he fumbles or goes blank. Sometimes a listener may ask a question that the speaker is not prepared to answer or the speaker may simply forget one of their points, in situations like these, improvisation helps to get back on track and prevents the audience from losing interest.

6.     Audience is the Center

The speaker is not the focus of the event, the audience is. All good orates cares more about the audience than themselves. This can be difficult if one has speech anxiety, which tends to fill them with bursts of anxiety and self-consciousness. However, focusing fully on the audience lifts a tremendous burden from your shoulders in terms of worrying about your performance.

One should practice taking the audience’s reactions into notice.

7.     Using Body Language and Gestures:

Body language and gestures say as much as the words themselves. One should practice employing gestures as much as possible while speaking. Smiling and being active in general is useful for keeping the attention of the audience on the speaker.

8.     Recording and Reviewing:

One of the most effective speaking practice techniques is to record oneself while speaking, preferably video recording. Although few people like their own voice, the audience’s viewpoint is more important. Are you gesturing with your hands too much? Is the intro too long? Should you include a story in the middle, so you hold the audience’s attention? All of these questions are important to answer, and it can be easiest to do so by seeing yourself.

9.     Practicing in front of Friends and Family:

Asking family or friends to be practice audience members is a good way to know where one is going right or going wrong. In most cases, these two groups of people know you better than anyone else in your life. That means that, although you may not want to hear it, they know your bad habits better than anyone.

In addition to your bad habits, your family and friends will also be able to tell you if you don’t quite sound like yourself.

English Sounds

No two persons speak exactly alike and the pronunciations differ greatly depending upon the locality and geography of the speaker. So how should one decide on a model? The English spoken by the native speakers of in south-east England, also known as Received Pronunciation (R.P) is often considered acceptable. Language starts with the ear. Therefore, one must first “hear” English and pay close attention to how different words sound.

Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that deals with the study and classification of how humans make and perceive sounds. In other words, It is the study of the physiological production of speech sounds and how different sounds are used to form syllables, words and sentences.

Phonetics can be classified into three main branches:

1. Articulatory Phonetics

Articulatory Phonetics describes how the movement of different vocal organs are used to produce different speech sounds. It deals with the physical aspects of speech production. The organs of speech comprise of the Tongue, Nasal cavity, Lips, Epiglottis, Teeth, Uvula, Soft palate, Vocal chords, Windpipe, and the Pharyngeal Cavity.

2.     Acoustic Phonetics

Acoustic Phonetics deal with the acoustic properties of speech sounds. The variations in air pressure while speaking form an essential component of how sounds are made. Speech sounds can be divided into two major classes, the first, sounds that consist of periodic wave form i.e the fluctuations in air pressure are in regular intervals, and the second, sounds that consist of a non-regular wave from,

3.     Auditory Phonetics

Auditory Phonetics deal with the study of the variation between what is said by the speaker and what is heard by the receiver. In other words, it is the study of how humans perceive sounds.

Like the English language, Phonetics also consists of consonants and vowels. A consonant is a sound in which there is either a complete or partial obstruction which prevents the air from issuing freely from the mouth. On the other hand, a vowel is a voiced sound in the pronunciation of which the air passes through the mouth in a continuous stream, there being no obstruction such as would produce friction.

Speech sounds, also known as Phonemes, is the smallest recurring sound in a sentence. Merriam Webster defines speech sound as “any one of the smallest recurrent recognizably same constituents of spoken language produced by movement or movement and configuration of a varying number of the organs of speech in an act of ear-directed communication.”

According to the International Phonetic Association, the English language consists of 26 alphabets but there are 44 speech sounds (Phonemes) in the English language consisting of 20 vowel sounds and 24 consonant sounds.

Phonemes (speech sounds) are represented in writing by placing the letters used to represent the sound between two slashes, for example, the sound that you say at the beginning of the word pot is represented by /p/.

Speech Sounds can be classified into three types, viz. Consonants, Vowels and diphthongs.

1. Consonants:

A consonant is a sound accompanied by voice, in which there is either a complete or partial obstruction which prevents the air from freely issuing from the mouth.

In words such as base, maze, bathe, rouge, bake, path, long the sounds at the end of the words are distinctive. These twenty-four sounds may occur initially, medially and finally.

Consonants are perhaps more important than vowels because even if we pronounce the consonants only, most English words would be easy to understand. Consonant form the bones, the skeleton of English words and give them their basic shape. Moreover, differences of accent are mainly the result of differences in the sound of vowels; if the consonants are imperfect there will be a great risk of misunderstanding.

There are many types of consonants such as Fricatives (s,z,f,v), Plosives (stop) consonants (p and b; t and d; k and g). Nasal (m,n), Lateral and Gliding consonants.

Below are all the consonants comprised in the English phonetic script by the International Phonetics Alphabet (IPA)

Unvoiced consonants

p f θ t s            ʃ      ʧ             k

pea free thing tree see sheep     cheese coin

Voiced consonants

b v ð d z ʒ             ʤ        g

boat video this dog zoo television joke go

m     n     ŋ     h      w  l  r j

mouse   now    thing   hope   we  love  run you

2.     Vowels:

In ordinary speech, a vowel is a voiced sound in the pronunciation of which the air passes through the mouth in a continuous stream, there being no obstruction and no narrowing such as would produce audible friction. All English vowels are voiced. Vowels like consonants can also occur initially or finally.

The following list consists of some words with vowel speech sounds:

Feel, fill, tall, bull, fool, mile, bat, toil, cart, pear, poor, butter, pier.

The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the tongue and lips. It is convenient to classify them according to the position of the main part of the tongue. The position of the tip has no great effect on vowel quality. The tip of the tongue is supposed to be touching or near the lower teeth.

1. Front vowels are the vowels which are produced with the front of the tongue raised in the direction of the hard palate. Ex. Feed.
2. Back vowels are the vowels which are produced with the back of the tongue raises in the direction of the soft palate. Ex. Food.
3. The vowels which are intermediate between the front and the back vowels are known as central vowels. Ex. Bird.

Below are the vowels comprised in the English Phonetic script by the International Phonetics Alphabet (IPA)

ɪ i: ʊ u:

Ship sheep book shoot

e ɜ: ə ɔ:

left her teacher door

æ ʌ ɒ ɑ:

hat up on far 

3.     Diphthongs:

A diphthong is a deliberate glide where speech organs start in the position of one vowel and move towards another. A diphthong constitutes one syllable though the ear perceives two separate syllables.

Every diphthong may be said to have a first element (the starting point) and a second element (in the direction of which the glide is made). Most of the length and stress associated with the glide is concentrated on the first element. The second element is only lightly sounded. All English diphthongs are falling diphthongs (decrescendo).

The diphthongs are equivalent in length to the long pure vowels and are subject to the same variations of quantity. They also reflect variations in different regional and social types of speech.

Diphthongs are represented in phonetic transcription by a sequence of two letters, the first showing the position of the organs of speech at the beginning of the glide and the second showing their position at the end. In the case of ‘closing diphthongs’ the second letter indicates the point towards which the glide is made, but that point is not necessarily reached, and such diphthongs sound quite correct if the organs of speech perform only part of the maximum permissible movement.

Below are the diphthongs comprised in the English Phonetic script by the International Phonetics Alphabet (IPA)

eɪ ɔɪ aɪ

wait coin like

eə ɪə ʊə

hair here tourist

əʊ aʊ 

Show mouth 

4.     Consonant Clusters

A consonant cluster can be defined as a group or sequence of consonants that appear together in a syllable consisting no vowels between them.

Below are some examples of consonant clusters:

Spots- \sp\ and \ts\

Spray - \spr\

It is essential to distinguish between consonant clusters and digraphs. A digraph is a group of two or more symbols which really stand for just one sound (usually a consonant) unlike a consonant cluster.

For instance, in the word 'ship', the two letters "s" and "h" together represent the single consonant [ʃ].

But in a word such as 'chat', the letters c and h appear in succession but are not a consonant cluster, even though both are separate consonants in other contexts (cat; hat). Here, ch is a digraph because the ch sequence represents a single sound in the underlying English sound system.

Consonant clusters or blends, are the names given to two or more than two consonants that appear together in a word succeeding each other. Each consonant retains its sound when blended. In phonetics, the term consonant cluster refers to the written form and the term blend refers to the spoken form.

Consonant clusters consist of four major categories:

• r-blends: br, cr, dr, fr, gr, pr, tr,
• s-blends: sc, sk, sl, sm, sn, sp, st, sw,
• l-blends: bl, cl, fl, gl, pl.
• 3 letter blends: str, spr thr, chr, phr, shr. The consonant clusters thr, chr, phr, shr, are made up of a consonant digraph and a consonant.

Ending blends: ct, ft, ld, lp, lt, mp, nd, nk, nt, pt, rd, rk, sk, sp, st

Rhythm and Intonation

Rhythm

The movement of music and rhythm involved in speech is called vocal rhythm. Communication is always rumoured to be more effective in speech, because the tone relates to thoughts, feelings, or feelings between people who speak.

The English language is a musical language. We use tone to express feelings or ask questions. In each conversation, it is important to remember the meaning of the tones. If the conversation is vague or incomprehensible, we use tones to look for discrepancies between the speaker and the listener. Gaining insight by pronouncing each word clearly, however, if the introduction is out of the ordinary, the meaning you speak will not be clear.

The English language is important in the meaning of words, they emphasize the repression of words. English does not have the same sounds of sentences. One syllabus is very emphasized while the others are soft. The native speakers do not care for the weak syllables; on the other hand, they care about the meaning of the words included.

Stress and body language are disorders of the mother tongue. Language learners who need the sound of a target language should see the phonetic difference between the target language and the mother tongue. In contrast, the student will not remember the exact sounds of another language. Therefore, they try to keep their hearing to match the sounds of their mother tongue. That allows them to improve their performance around the traditional platform.

Types of Rhythms:
 

The tone of the fall or the fall applies to the conviction of the content of the speech.
Examples:

1. Low pitch (rising tone) is used when the speaker has a question and demands. For example:

2. High pitch (rising tone) is used when the speaker asks for repetition or clarification, or to show disbelief. For example:

3. Fallout is a sign of dependency, continued financial volatility. It happens in the middle sentence non-final units.

Examples:
a) The bus for TURE will be safe.

b) STUdy at this school is really good.

In every language you are unique and have some aspects of it. To be fluent in a second language is required more than just vocabulary, grammar or structures. Information about the important differences between mother tongue and second language is also needed.

It is necessary to understand any language with an emphasis on other aspects because languages ​​depend on the pressure, rhythm and sounds that are part of it. Therefore, it is especially important for students who intend to communicate in any language other than the native one. Thus, students who want to understand another language have the intention to tolerate, test, and obtain research based on the key elements of the target language.

Intonation

Intonation is the ‘music’ of the language. It describes the pitch, pattern, or melody of the words in a given sentence. Intonation allows us to understand the underlying meaning of the sentence because of its varying pitch.  It is also an important factor in recognizing different emotions like surprise, confusion, and etc.

Types of Intonation

Falling intonation

A falling intonation is a type of tone where the voice falls on the last syllable of the last word. This intonation is typically employed in –wh questions- what, where, when, why, and how.

Examples:

     Why are you not busy today?

     How are you going to pass all of those papers on time?

In addition, falling intonation is also used if one wants to emphasize things or they want to be definite or clear with their words or intentions.

Examples:

     I think we locked the door properly.

     We are certain about this project proposal of ours.

Rising Intonation

The rising intonations can be placed at the end or at the last syllable of the word in a sentence. Yes- no questions use rising intonation.

Examples:

     Are you sure about that?

     Is this dress looks pretty on me?

Fall-rise Intonation

Fall-rise intonation is the combination of the two prior intonations- falling and rising intonations. The fall-rise intonation how the speaker’s voice falls and then rises at the same time in the same sentence. Fall-rise intonation is used if one is indefinite or not sure with their words or ideas presented.

Examples:

     I don’t like the idea of marriage right now.

     He thinks it would be okay to start planning next week.

We also utilize fall-rise intonation if we are doing questions that intend to ask permission, request, or an invitation to someone. Fall-rise intonation sounds politer than using falling intonation or rising intonation.

Examples:

     Would like another glass of wine?

     Do you want to join me for dinner? It will be fun.

Functions and Significance of Intonation

Here are some of the most important uses of intonation:

1. Grammatical Function: Intonation performs a grammatical function such as signalling the difference between a statement and a question, or distinguishing between an information question or a yes/no question.

2.     Accentual Function: Intonation carries an accentual function which means it can be used to emphasize or draw attention to certain words. This occurs when we introduce new information, contrast two ideas, or clarify our meaning.

3.     Attitudinal or Emotional Function: Intonation is useful for expressing attitudes and emotions, which means it conveys additional information about the speaker’s mood, feelings, emotions, or attitude. This type of information which is acquired from intonation could be about the speaker’s general attitude, their emotions about what they’re saying, or their feelings towards the listener. To interpret this type of intonation, it’s important to pay attention to other contextual clues.

4.     Discourse Function: Discourse function of intonation means it signals how ideas go together in speech. For instance, we use stress and intonation to signal thoughts, or how we break our speech into smaller, more digestible parts.

5.     Psychological Function: The psychological function of intonation makes ideas easier to understand, memorize, and say. You can hear this use of intonation in how we say lists and series, open- and closed-choice questions, large numbers, and phone numbers.

6.     Conversation Management: Intonation is used for conversation management, which means it helps facilitate the flow of conversation by signalling whose turn it is to speak. Some examples are how we use a steep drop to signal that a thought is complete, or how we maintain a slight or a steep rise in order to signal that we’re not done speaking yet.

7.     Indexical Function: Indexical function of intonation means it signals our personal or social identity. People from certain regions may use uptalk or more or less pitch variation to signal where they’re from. This use can also be heard among people of certain specific professions:

     Teachers and educators often use a “teacher” voice.

     Preachers or religious authorities often speak with a certain tone of voice.

     Transportation workers like conductors and bus drivers often recite stops or information with a certain voice.

Telephonic Skills

Telephonic skills include effective communication, interpersonal skills and also the ability to demonstrate appropriate phone etiquette. Successful telephonic conversations (such as converting leads to paying customers) can depend on how well you apply your conversational techniques, how clearly you speak and how you approach engaging people you speak with. Because phone conversations may be a section of nearly any business operation, it will be important to develop these skills to showcase your expertise on your resume, during interviews and in the workplace.

Types of Telephonic Skills

The following skill sets can typically be aspects of effective telephonic skills:

1. Communication skills

One of the primary and most important aspects of demonstrating effective phone skills is the ability to speak effectively and efficiently. Whether you're employed in customer service or a leadership role, effectively communicating by phone can encompass active listening, eliciting conversation with callers to assist solve problems and finding ways to understand the needs of others.

2.     Interpersonal skills

Along with the ability to communicate effectively, telephonic skills can also depend on your interpersonal skills. Being able to read a caller's tone of voice, interpret their emotions and adapt your tone and conversational style to the discussion are often a vital aspect of effective phone skills.

3.     Organizational skills

Making and receiving calls within the workplace may also rely on organizational skills. Taking notes, relaying messages and gathering and sorting customer information will be an enormous part of what it means to achieve success in demonstrating your ability to handle large call volumes.

4.     Technical skills

Oftentimes, organizations like call centres and customer service centres may integrate computer software that automates calling features like sorting current phone numbers, organizing cold leads from warm leads and recording calls. Phone skills can include these styles of technical skills, as well as your ability to find out the way to navigate call automation software.

5.     Attention to detail

Speaking with customers on the phone may also mean applying attention to detail. The ability to manage multiple phone calls and keep inbound and outbound phone logs organized is crucial for any job that needs phone skills. Managing call lists, removing derelict phone numbers and documenting call information can rely upon your attention to detail.

6.     Customer service skills

No matter who you speak with during a call, you'll expect to trust your customer service skills. Using a friendly tone, asking the caller questions that help to spot problems or specific needs and maintaining professional conduct are aspects of quality customer service that may impact how effectively you connect with people over the phone.

Improving Telephonic Skills

Developing effective telephonic skills can mean improving different aspects of your communication skills, conversation techniques and your tone and clarity when speaking. The following steps outline some approaches you may take to assist you improve these skills:

1. Practice with a script

One step toward improving your skills is to practice with a script to develop the way you make and receive calls and initiate conversations. For instance, you may create a script to assist you master your greetings and to prepare important discussion points. You can practice along with your script until you become extremely conversant in it, then you can add or replace different phrases or pieces of your script as you further develop your conversational techniques.

2. Make practice calls

Next, you can use your script to make practice calls. You might have a friend or loved one help by calling you so you can practice how you answer calls and greet people on the phone. You can also practice making and receiving calls by having an acquaintance act as a customer in a number of scenarios. For instance, they will play the role of an upset customer so you'll practice how you would possibly handle an identical situation at work.

3. Record your voice

As you practice how you answer calls and greet people on the phone, you may consider recording yourself to guage how you sound during a phone conversation. As you play your recordings back, hear your tone, clarity and the way you enunciate your words. If the sound of your voice is unclear or if your voice takes on a monotonous quality, you can take steps to boost these areas.

4. Develop your tone and clarity

Using your practice recordings, you can take approaches to better develop your tone and also the clarity of your speech. Speaking slowly, enunciating your words and smiling can all affect the tone of your voice. For instance, smiling during phone conversations affects your speech by making your tone sound friendly and fascinating, while frowning can reflect in your tone and may make your voice sound unenthusiastic or unapproachable.

5. Learn how to use calling software

If you're employed at a call centre you may consider becoming more acquainted with the kind of calling automation software that's used for making and receiving calls. For instance, you may determine which elements of the software you can improve your efficiency in, like navigating between large call lists or entering customer information into a database. Proficiency in the technical aspects of inbound and outbound calling can assist you improve your success when you speak with customers on the phone.

Group Communication

Every organization is a group unto itself. A group consists of two or more people who share a common objective and evaluation of themselves and come together to achieve common goals. In other words, a group can be referred to as a collection of people who interact with one another; accept rights and obligations as members and who share a common identity.

Types of Groups

Groups can be formal and informal; formal groups are created by the organization with the intent to accomplish its objective, while the informal groups get created spontaneously as soon as the individuals interact with each other.

The groups can be classified on the basis of the structure of the organization. These are:

• Formal Groups
• Informal Groups

The analytical classification of the groups can be done as follows:

1. Primary Groups: The primary group refers to the small social group whose members are closely related to each other and share an enduring relationship. Instances of these groups include family members, friendship groups and highly influential social groups. Here the group members have an intimate relationship with each other and is characterized by face to face association and cooperation.

2.     Secondary Groups: Secondary Groups are more formal groups whose members come together to perform certain tasks and achieve specific outcomes. Here the group members are not emotionally associated with each other and do not get affected by the pain and the pleasure of others. Corporate groups, military, political group, factories, etc. are some examples of secondary groups. Thus, a secondary group is more institutionalized in nature.

3.     Membership Groups: The membership group is the one to which an individual actually belongs to. Sometimes the membership fee is to be given to become a member of certain groups. The club membership is the best example of membership groups.

4.     Reference Groups: A reference group is a type of group with which an individual identify himself and want to become a member of that group. An individual could be a member of several groups, but may not participate in all simultaneously and would like to participate in those groups whose norms are more attractive and gratifying.

5.     Command Groups: A command group is comprised of superiors and subordinates who carry out orders on the basis of their authority within the group. This type of group is determined through the hierarchical chart of the organization. For instance, a marketing manager having the group of sales personnel under his department would fall under this type of group.

6.     Task Groups: Task Group is a group of individuals who come together to accomplish a certain task or a job assigned to them. Generally, these groups are created to capitalize the expertise of different individuals towards the accomplishment of a particular project. Thus, task groups may be formed beyond the lines of a hierarchical chart of the company or organization.

7.     In-groups and Out-groups: The in-group is a type of group mainly composed of the individuals who holds a dominant position in the social functioning. These members could be in the majority and carry prevailing values in the society.

The out-group refers to those individuals who are in the certain instances considered to be less in numbers and often looked upon as marginal or subordinate in the society.

Characteristics of Group Communication

Group communication refers to the emergence of verbal and nonverbal skills, social interaction, and social cognition. It may be verbal or non-verbal.

It is often viewed as a form of communication that is ‘unwritten’ and that people seem to ‘just know.’ Communication in this area includes interaction with peers, family members, friends and colleagues. Group communication behaviours include understanding and using appropriate facial expressions, eye contact, and body language.

Types of group communications include public gatherings, group discussions, conversations between friends and/or colleagues, social and informal meetings, etc.

Group communication has the following characteristics:

(1) Formation through Social Relations:

This communication is born out of social relations who mean that it is beyond the restrictions of the organisation. No superior-subordinate relationship figures therein. A more sociable superior can gather much information through this channel.

(2) Two types of Information:

Through this type of communication, both information about work and personal lives of different individuals can be collected and transferred.

(3) Unstructured:

There is no hierarchical structure for group communication and hence they do not generally follow a pattern of information flow like business communication.

(4) Possibility of Rumour and Distortion:

In group communication, there is always a possibility of distortion of the information being transferred. This is known as the grapevine effect where individuals may add or subtract information irrelevant to what was originally stated. Responsibility for the true or false nature of communication does not lie on any individual and, therefore, not much attention is paid to its meaning while communicating.

(5) Quick Relay:

Group communication is essentially faster than other types of communication as it transfers information in an informal manner. It is especially useful for announcements when a large number of people are to be addressed in a social setting.

3.3.          Reading Skills: Developing Reading Skills, Reading Strategies, Reading Comprehension

Developing Reading Skills

Reading is a skill, and like other skills it can be improved over time. With reading, practice is the mantra, the more you read the better you'll be at understanding a text. Below are the seven main strategies which will help you hone your reading skills:

1. Improve your vocabulary
2. Come up with questions about the text you are reading
3. Use context clues
4. Look for the main idea
5. Write a summary of what you read
6. Break up the reading into smaller sections
7. Pace yourself

1. Improve your vocabulary

The basic unit of a sentence is a word. Therefore, it is necessary to first understand the meaning of words in order to understand the meaning of sentences and ultimately the subtle meanings within the text. To improve your vocabulary, you can:

• Take an online vocabulary quiz to assess your current level of vocabulary understanding
• Use flashcards to quiz yourself on words you don’t know once or twice a week
• Make a point to use newly learned words in verbal and written communication
• Read as much as possible to improve your ability to guess what a word means in a certain context
• Make a list of unfamiliar words as you read and look them up in the dictionary

2. Come up with questions about the text you are reading

If you ask yourself questions while reading a text, it will help you get more invested and allow you to get a deeper understanding of the text. It will also allow you to explore themes, motifs and other components of text that you otherwise wouldn’t inquire about. The following are examples of questions you could pose as you read:

• Why was that location chosen to start the book by the author?
• What kind of relationships do characters share with each other?
• What do we know about the main character up to this point in the book?
• What are the themes consistently recurring throughout the book? What do they mean?

The more specific your questions, the more likely you will gain further insight into the text and its meaning.

3. Use context clues

Using context clues is a great way to understand what you are reading even if you don’t know all the vocabulary being used. Context clues can be found in the words and sentences surrounding the word that you aren’t familiar with. To use context clues, you can focus on the key phrases or ideas in a sentence and deduce the main idea of a sentence or paragraph based on this information. You can also look for nearby words that are synonyms or antonyms of the word you don’t know.

4. Look for the main idea

Identifying the main idea of a paragraph or article can help you determine the importance of the article. Understanding why the author has written what he has written will help you develop a deeper understanding of the text. While reading, pause after every paragraph and try to decipher the central idea behind the paragraph. Then, try to use your own words and describe the paragraph for further understanding.

5. Write a summary of what you read

Summarisation is a great way to increase your knowledge of what you have read. Summarizing requires you to decide what is important in the text and then put it in your own words. Summarizing allows you to determine if you truly understand what you have read and better remember what you have read in the long term

6. Break up the reading into smaller sections

Breaking up a text into small sections is a great way of understanding the text more easily if the text is complicated. For example, you could read two paragraphs at a time and then pause to quickly summarize what you just read in your mind. Breaking up what you are reading can help you feel less overwhelmed and give you a better chance of truly comprehending the information in the text.

7. Pace yourself

Set realistic goals for yourself while reading by pacing yourself and allowing yourself some room to breathe. Literary texts require a deep understanding of the subject matter and pacing will be especially helpful for understanding literary texts. Set a goal for yourself that you know you can meet each day. For example, instead of trying to read a full hefty book in two days, try reading 4 chapters in one day. This allows you to reach your goals and also provides adequate time for you to process what you are reading between each session.

Reading Strategies

Below are some fundamental reading strategies:

1. Previewing:

Previewing refers to take a quick glance at a text before actually reading it. It enables readers to understand the organizational structure of a text. Previewing includes the process of skimming through the text and looking at the headings, table of contents (if any) and typographical cues to get the general idea of what the text is about.

2. Contextualizing:

Contextualizing refers to the process of placing the text in its appropriate historical, biographical and cultural background. When one reads a text they often tend to look at it through the lenses of one's won background, leading to a misjudged or biased reading of the text.  Contextualizing helps one eradicate this problem by understanding the scenario and purpose for which the text was written.

3. Questioning:

Asking questions while reading a text helps one remember and understand what they have read up to that moment. Questions should be asked after the end of each paragraph and they should deal with the general gist of that paragraph and not with little details contained inside it.

4. Reflecting:

While reading, one's personal beliefs or opinions may be challenged by the text. Here it is important to reflect on one's unconscionably held beliefs and values and how the text affects them. As one is reading the text for the first time, an X should be marked in the margin at each point where they feel a personal challenge to their attitudes, beliefs, or status. A brief note should be made in the margin about what one feels or about what in the text created the challenge. After marking, the text should be read again to find out any patterns one has regarding personal beliefs.

5. Outlining and summarizing:

Summarizing a text is a great way to ascertain if one has grasped the intended meaning of the text. While outlining deals with the general overview of the text, summarizing is the process of writing down what one has understood about the central idea of the text in their own words thereby forming a new text in itself.

Although summarizing begins with outlining, it always ends with creating its own independent text. Outlining focuses on a close analysis of each paragraph, however, summarizing requires creative synthesis. Outlining and summarizing shows how reading critically can lead to deeper understanding of any text.

6. Evaluating an argument:

Evaluating involves the process of testing the logic of a text, its credibility and emotional impact. Writers make assumptions which they want the readers to accept as true, although a critical reader must always evaluate and question what he reads. One should not accept the details within a text as they are presented before him, he should always be prepared to question and assess the text at every step. This will help the reader to grasp any hidden meanings within the text.

7. Comparing and contrasting related readings:

Comparing the text one reads with other texts helps the reader to get a better understanding of the text. Sometimes authors refer to similar incidents but with different perspectives. Comparing various texts helps the reader shine new light on a particular subject letting him explore it more deeply. This might also lead to a change in the readers opinions regarding the topic.

Reading Comprehension

Reading is the cognitive process of decoding symbols to derive meaning from them. It is the ability to understand text, decode its meaning and compare with what the reader already knows.

Knowledge of grammar and vocabulary are very essential to be a good reader. Attention span, the ability to understand the meaning of a word from context, the ability to co-relate thoughts and ideas, the ability to follow the flow of words, and the ability to identify various literary devices are the fundamental skills required for efficient reading.

We should make our pupil an efficient reader. An efficient reader is like a bus driver who knows when to go slow, when to accelerate speed, how to negotiate hair-pin bends on ghat roads etc. An efficient reader knows there are different levels of comprehension too as these are different reading materials. To become an efficient reader, one should be able to employ different study techniques Reading is an act of communication between writer and reader. It is an act in which the reader grasps the information the writer passes on to him.

Comprehension is the correct association of meanings with word symbols. It is the selection of the correct meaning suggested by the text It is a thinking process. It is thinking through reading. Students should lead and get complete meaning. There are two situations that arise while reading a passage. The pupils may find a reading comprehension passage difficult for them. The teacher should know about the difficulties beforehand and prevent their occurrence.

Some common difficulties are:

• Students are not able to concentrate on what they read.
• They are not able to recognize words. Noisy surroundings, inadequate lighting and uncomfortable seating arrangements.
• Unfamiliarity of the subject matter (eg) a child from a city may not understand a passage on farming and a village child about road signal systems.
• In effective questioning and answering techniques.
• Lack of appropriate guidance by the teacher Steps for the comprehension skills. These are various steps followed for the construction of comprehension.

Features of Reading Comprehension

Reading for the main idea:

One should develop skills to identify the main idea or the central idea in what they read. This skill is necessary to get the main idea, identify the theme and get the implied meanings of the paragraph.

Activities to identify the main idea:

• Underlining key words.
• Selecting the topic sentence.
• Writing the title.
• Turning the sub heads or subtitles into a question (The answer to the question may give the main idea of the paragraph)
• Locating the function words that tie the sentence together. e.g then, therefore, but, etc.

Reading for details:

Along with reading for and stating the main idea the one must learn to read for details.

Below are some activities which facilitate reading for details:

• Look at a picture and then describe what they see at the picture.
• Note the details in a paragraph after stating the main idea.
• Identify irrelevant sentences.
• Analyse the paragraph to make a formal outline.
• Carryout simple directions on how to do something.
• Respond to directions.
• Elicit answers concerning the details, develop chart, diagram or map of the sequence of events.

Reading for organization:

Good readers will understand the organisation of what is being read. They arrange the ideas in logical order. The key helps to recall the information is organization. Reading the content areas depends upon proficiency in organisation skills. A Good reader knows how paragraphs are organized.

Activities that help one learn in a logical order what they are reading:

• Organizing information about a given subject (eg) characteristics of animals)
• Grouping a series of details about a main idea.
• Developing an outline for a story with heading and subheadings.
• Arranging records, directions or ideas in sequential orders.
• Arranging various bits of information about a selected topic and grouping them into an information story.

Reading for summarising and outline:

Summaries help to pressure the essential facts and ideas in capsule form. They retain important information. So one should develop summarizing skill. Outlining is another way of organisation. It is closely related to summarising activities to develop summarizing skills. Summarise a message to be sent as a telegram. Selecting the main idea from the choices you give them. Do exercise for writing an outline. Read a small poem and select the best summary from the choices you give them.

Barriers to Reading

Some of the barriers to effective reading are as follows-

Lack of grammatical and linguistic competence:

Many people cannot read effectively because they fail to decrypt grammatical and lexical units of language in the text. They lack the ability to differentiate and recognize the words, sentences, expressions, used in the text. It hampers the process of reading. The reader may stop reading further if he fails to understand the text grammatically.

Lack of motivation:

Reading for information and knowledge requires motivation and discipline. Many people think reading as boring and time-consuming task. Lack of proper motivation and goal may create barrier to reading.

Lack of concentration:

Many a times a reader finds himself reading a passage or a page and later realizing that he had not understood the meaning of it at all. This happens due to a lack of concentration while reading. One of the main reasons for this is that the reader might be lost in his thoughts while he is reading. Reading is psycho-linguistic process and therefore requires careful attention of the reader.

Proper light and ventilation:

A reader has to struggle a lot to read in dim light or dark rooms. If proper ventilation is not there in the reading room, reader may feel suffocated or tired.

Subject of interest:

People often prefer reading texts that they are interested in. If one is reading a topic which is not according to his preferences, he may find himself losing interest gradually.

Articulating the words and sentences loudly:

Many readers have habit to articulate loudly or murmur the words in the text. They buzz each word which creates a barrier to speed reading.

Putting finger, pen or any object on the words and sentences while reading: Many people put their finger or pen on the text while reading. They move the finger or object from word to word which lowers down the process of reading.

Narrow eye span:

Readers often read the text one word at a time with independent eye shift between each and every word. They have narrow eye span. It not only decreases the speed of reading but also affects the comprehension. Shorter the eye span, slower the speed and comprehension. Readers require proper training and techniques to expand their eye span.

Example for Reading comprehension:

Read the following comprehensions and answer the questions:

In the 16th century, an age of great marine and terrestrial searching, Ferdinand Magellan led the first journey to sail around the world. As a young Portuguese noble, he worked for the king of Portugal, but he became involved in the quagmire of political conspiracy at court and lost the king’s good deed. After he was removed from service by the king of Portugal, he started to serve the future Emperor Charles V of Spain.

A papal decree of 1493 had allocated all land in the New World west of 50 degrees W longitude to Spain and all the land east of that line to Portugal. Magellan afforded to provide evidence that the East Indies fell under Spanish power. On September 20, 1519, Magellan set sail from Spain with five ships. More than a year later, one of these ships was searching the landscape of South America looking for a water route across the continent. This ship sank, but the outstanding four ships searched along the southern peninsula of South America. Lastly, they found the passage they wanted near 50 degrees S latitude. Magellan called this passage the Strait of All Saints, but today it is recognized as the Strait of Magellan.

One ship abandoned while in this passage and came back to Spain, so fewer sailors were advantaged to look at that first panorama of the Pacific Ocean. Those who stayed back crossed the meridian now identified as the International Date Line in the early spring of 1521 after 98 days on the Pacific Ocean. During those long days at sea, many of Magellan’s men died of hunger and disease.

Later, Magellan became worried in an insular disagreement in the Philippines and was murdered in a tribal battle. Only one ship and 17 sailors under the authority of the Basque navigator Elcano survived to finish the westward voyage to Spain and thus show once and for all that the world is round, with no cliff at the border.

1. The 16th century was an age of large ______ exploration.

1. Cosmic
2. Land
3. Mental
4. Common man
5. None of the above

2. Magellan lost the favour of the king of Portugal when he became involved in a political ________.

1. Entanglement
2. Discussion
3. Negotiation
4. Problem
5. None of the above

3. The Pope separated New World lands between Spain and Portugal along with their location on one side or the other of an made-up physical line 50 degrees west of Greenwich that extends in a _________ direction.

1. North and south
2. Crosswise
3. Easterly
4. South east
5. North and west

4. One of Magellan’s ships searched the _________ of South America for a passage across the continent.

1. Coastline
2. Mountain range
3. Physical features
4. Islands
5. None of the above

5. Four of the ships sought after a passageway along a southern ______.

1. Coast
2. Inland
3. Body of land with water on three sides
4. Border
5. Answer not available

6. The passage was found near 50 degrees of ________.

1. Greenwich
2. The equator
3. Spain
4. Portugal
5. Madrid

7. In the spring of 1521, the ships crossed the _______ now called the International Date Line.

1. Imaginary circle passing through the poles
2. Imaginary line parallel to the equator
3. Area
4. Land mass
5. Answer not available

Tips to make the most of your reading comprehension practice

Reading is a fundamental part everyday life. These tips can help you make the most of your time when practicing your reading skills.

1. Eliminate distractions: When you are distracted, your ability to comprehend what you are reading is negatively impacted. When reading—even if it’s a simple email—the focus should be solely on the text as concentration is an essential element of the cognitive process. This will help you learn to hold your attention on what you read and enable you to know whether you understand what you are reading.

b.     Read a book below your reading level: Starting with books below your reading level will allow you to develop a baseline of your reading comprehension and build on that. Instead of starting with books that contain complicated subjects, read something that interests you, is comfortable and that you can easily comprehend. You can take online quizzes to determine your current reading level.

c.      Re-read text to ensure understanding: If you finish a sentence or paragraph and realize that you don’t understand what it was trying to convey, take the time to re-read it until you do. Try to read more slowly the second time around and look up definitions for any words you don’t know the meaning of.

d.     Read aloud: Reading aloud comprises of both visual and audio cognitive processes which helps you with your reading comprehension practice. It also forces you to slow down and gives you more time to process what you are reading.

3.4.          Writing Skills: Paragraph Writing, Essay Writing, E-Writing, Job Applications, Reports, Resume and Letter Writing

Paragraph Writing

A paragraph is a group of related sentences that support one central idea. Generally, the paragraphs have three parts: the topic sentence, the body sentences, and the conclusion or sentence of the bridge to the next paragraph or paragraph. Paragraphs indicate where the division of a research book begins and ends, and, thus, helps the reader to see the order of the text and to understand its main points.

Business documents - such as letters, emails, reminders and reports - use categories to distinguish different types of information, ideas, and ideas. The sections written in the business format are organized in an orderly, professional and well-organized manner. When writing a business document, we have to look at how the paragraph will appear on the page, the organization of the section and its placement throughout the article. We have to agree on the way our categories are organized. We should use short language and simple style to keep the reader focused on our message.

Structure and Writing Style

Most of the subsections in the book revolve around the formation of three general sections of each section of the research paper, and, by extension, a comprehensive research paper, with an introduction, a body of facts and analysis, and a conclusion. You can see this structure in stages as it relates, describes, compares, compares or analyses information. Each section of the paragraph plays an important role in conveying the meaning you desire to the reader.

Introduction (The Topic Sentence):

Writers don’t get a second chance to make a first impression. The first sentence or topic sentence of the paragraph will give readers a first impression of the argument, the writing style, and the overall quality of the work. A vague, random presentation, full of errors, a wall, or a developing introduction may create a negative impression. On the other hand, a short, fun, and well-written introduction will start readers not thinking too much about writer's analytical skills, writing, and the paper.

Introduction is an important road map throughout the paper. It conveys a wealth of information to readers. Can let them know what the topic is, why it's important, and how it is planned to continue the discussion. In most academic disciplines, introduction should contain a thesis that will enhance the main argument.

Introduction should also give the reader a sense of the types of information to use to make that argument with the general organization of the paragraphs and pages to follow. After reading introduction, readers should not have any major surprises in store when reading the main body of the paper.

Ideally, introduction will make readers want to read the paper. The introduction should spark the interest of readers, making them want to read the rest of the paper. Opening up with a compelling story, an interesting question, or a clear example can get readers to see why the topic is important and serves as an invitation for them to join you in informative discussions (remember, however, that these strategies will not be appropriate for all papers and advice).

The body: follows the introduction; discusses regulatory logic, uses facts, arguments, analyses, examples, and other information.

Conclusion: final stage; it summarizes the connection between the information discussed in the body of the paragraph and the governing concept of the paragraph. For longer paragraphs, you may want to include a bridge sentence introducing the next section or section of the paper. In some cases, the sentence of the bridge may be written in the form of a question. However, use this smart device a bit, otherwise, completing most sections with a question to lead to the next level sounds a bit daunting.
 

NOTE: This standard layout does not mean you should not be creative in your writing. Editing when each element fits into a category can make the paper engaging for the reader. However, don't get too creative in trying out the narrative flow of stages. Doing so may jeopardize the central issues of your research and limit the quality of your academic writing.

Construction of a Paragraph

Paragraph content:

Each section has to deal with one main idea. Introduce the main idea to a common statement in the first paragraph of a paragraph. Follow this topic sentence with a few sentences that support the main idea. This may contain informative information or debate to defend your view. Wrap up the paragraph with a summary sentence. If the class is running too long, you risk losing the student's attention. Instead, arrange the long section into two or more sections.

Paragraph Order:

A business document, such as a report or letter, begins with a paragraph that informs the title of the book. This is followed by one or more sections that develop the lesson. The concluding paragraph summarizes the information you provided or asked the student to take some action. For example, a letter outlining the reasons for an ad campaign may begin with an introductory paragraph introducing the campaign, followed by three sections each explaining the unique purpose of the campaign and a concluding paragraph asking the reader to approve the campaign. If the document is long, use headers to separate large sections.

Paragraph Style:

The style of writing a paragraph can be formal or informal depending upon the context in which the paragraph is to be written. For example, while writing a fictional paragraph, an informal style would suffice. Here the tone may be friendly, the text may be personal or impersonal. While writing paragraphs for articles, the reader may be directly addressed. Business texts are written in formal style. Your writing may be read by third parties and kept by the company for many years, so avoid personal comments. Keep your writing up to date using gender-neutral language, as well as grammar and spelling. Keep your sentences short and to the point. Avoid clichés, contraction and slang.

Types of Paragraphs

There are four main types of paragraphs that are used in fiction as well as nonfiction writing, they are:

1. Descriptive Paragraph

A descriptive paragraph is one a type of paragraph which is describing a person, place, thing, animal, theme or idea to the reader. Descriptive paragraphs consist of sentences that make use of the five senses: how something feels, smells, sounds, tastes or looks. The more descriptive your paragraph can get, the more vivid picture you’re providing your reader. A good descriptive paragraph will make them desire they were there experiencing everything you’re talking about. Descriptive paragraphs are powerful tools for fiction writers, as these paragraphs are useful for setting the stage and telling the story.

2. Narrative Paragraph

A narrative paragraph is a type of paragraph which helps the writer in telling a story or keeping a story moving. Narrative paragraphs typically include sentences containing action, events and stream of consciousness that are written in exciting descriptive words. These paragraphs help keep the reader interested in the story. Narrative paragraphs are almost like descriptive paragraphs (and a paragraph may very well be both at once), but a narrative paragraph tends to supply the reader more background information, such as past events that initiate to or cause events within the story. These are also vital paragraphs for fiction writers, as they assist the reader to visualize the complete picture.

3. Persuasive Paragraphs

A persuasive paragraph is one in which the author is truly giving his own opinion on a particular subject or topic. Persuasive paragraphs must include facts and data that help to enforce the writer’s opinion. These paragraphs often show up in speeches or editorial essays and other kinds of writing where the primary goal is persuasion. In fiction, use these paragraphs to convince the reader to feel a particular way toward a character, place or event, perhaps a unique way than they may have felt earlier in the story.

4. Explanatory Paragraph

An explanatory paragraph offers the reader information on a specific subject. These paragraphs may contain directions or might describe a process in an exceedingly logical, linear manner. Explanatory paragraphs should also be factual in nature and don't seem to be a typical tool for fiction writers.

Features of a Paragraph - Unity, Coherence and Emphasis

Paragraph Unity means that the sentences in a paragraph should be united as a whole. It means that all the sentence a paragraph should be directly supportive of the topic sentence.

They unity of a paragraph can only be said to be established when all the sentences in that paragraph connect to the main idea. Many times while writing, the topic may be ambiguous, insufficient materials or resources may be available, or the purpose might be indefinite, which can lead to a diversified paragraph lacking unity.

Unity in a paragraph always starts with the topic sentence. Every paragraph must contain one single, controlling idea which must be expressed in its topic sentence, which is usually the first sentence of the paragraph. A paragraph must be then written in such a way that it is unified around this main idea, with the supporting sentences providing detail and discussion. In order to write a good topic sentence, think about your main theme and all the points you want to make in your paragraph. Decide which are the driving points, and then write the main one as your topic sentence.

Paragraph Coherence means that each and every sentence in a paragraph are linked together in a continuous line of thought and are organised in such a way so as to form a unity of idea. The sentences in a paragraph must always connect to each other and should work together as a whole with no gaps in the logical process.

Using transition words is one of the best methods of achieving coherence. These words act as bridges that connect sentences. Transition words that show order (first, second, third); spatial relationships (above, below) or logic (furthermore, in addition, in fact) are very useful for connecting sentences. Also, in writing a paragraph, using only one tense throughout and using only one perspective for descriptions are important ingredients for coherency.

There are some techniques which may be helpful with forming coherence in the paragraph:

• First is to think of a very clear topic sentence, the topic sentence must contain the central idea of the paragraph.
• Second is to use question and answer pattern in writing down the topic sentence. The question and answer pattern may be in the form of problem-solution or in general to particular to general format.
• Third is by positioning the topic sentence in the paragraph. Topic sentence is usually placed as the first sentence of the paragraph or sometimes it might serve as a transitional information before the paragraph. It may also be possible to put the topic sentence in the last sentence of the paragraph if it is not explicitly stated but is being implied.
• Another technique is to structure the paragraph using an ordering pattern such as the question-answer pattern, the problem-solution pattern and the topic-illustration pattern.

The third most important requirement of a well ­constructed paragraph is Emphasis. Emphasis in literal terms means “force” or “stress.” You may have a fairly well structured, coherent and unified paragraph but it might be lacking emphasis which is a common mistake among writers. Emphasis means that the main idea of the paragraph must be stressed in every sentence. A paragraph must not seem like a mass of useless details and unnecessary explanations. By keeping the same subject in every sentence, you can be sure that you are emphasising the main idea, whenever this is possible. In this way you are likely to improve the unity because it will not be so easy to go off the track. You are much less likely to introduce unrelated ideas if you are not changing subjects.

There are some techniques which might be useful in emphasising the paragraphs main idea:

You can establish emphasis by position, by repetition by climactic order.

• In establishing emphasis by position, it should be considered that the most significant ideas should be put in the introduction, in the conclusion, or in both parts within the paragraph. The paragraph should be filled with relevant statements not excluding minor details depending upon the need. Ending the paragraph by a summary of recapitulation is also beneficial.
• In establishing emphasis by repetition, the central idea can be repeated by using different words which will stress its importance. This strategy usually impresses the readers most emphatically with what the writer is trying to explain.
• In establishing emphasis by climactic order, the details in the paragraph must be arranged gradually beginning with the simple or least significant and ending with the most complex or most significant.

Essay Writing

Dimension of Essay Writing

There are many types of essays and papers you can write as a student. The content and length of the essay varies depending on your level, subject of study, and the requirements of a particular course.

However, many subject bodies share the same goal. They aim to convince students of a position or perspective through informed, evidence-based, analytical and interpretive debates.

In addition, every story has an introduction, body and ending that always do the same or few things.

Essay Writing Process:

The essay writing process consists of three stages: preparation, writing and revision. These categories apply to each article or paper. However, the time and energy spent in each category depends on the sort of essay, for instance a private statement, a press release of intent, a high school essay or a grad school essay.

Preparation:

• Understand the assignment
• Understand your audience
• Select a topic
• Do some initial research
• Name the thesis statement
• Create an outline

Writing:

• Write an introduction
• Organize your arguments and give evidence
• Write the conclusion

Review:

• Analyse the organization
• Review the content of each paragraph
• Proofread for language errors
• Check for plagiarism

Introduction of an Essay:
 

The introduction is important to both capture the reader's interest and inform them of what will be found in the story. The introduction usually contains 10-20% of the text. To learn how to write an article introduction, first become familiar with its most important objectives.

• Move your student by chasing curiosity and curiosity:
  The first sentence of the introduction should draw your student's wish. This sentence is sometimes referred to as a hook. It can be a question, quote, a surprising number, or a bold statement that emphasizes the importance of a topic.
  Let's say you write an article about the development of Braille (a literacy program used by the visually impaired). A boat can be something like:
  The introduction of Braille marked the biggest turning point in the history of disability.

• Provide background and context for your topic:
  After you dismiss the student, it is important to provide context that will help your student understand your argument. This may include providing background information, providing an overview of important academic work or arguments on a topic, as well as explaining difficult words. Do not give too many details in the introduction - you can adequately describe the content of your essay.

• Explain the purpose and create a thesis statement:
  Next, you have to explain your basic argument or thesis statement. The thesis statement provides focus and reflects your position on the topic. Usually one or two sentences long. An example of a thesis statement from Braille essay can be seen as follows:
  The idea of ​​orthopaedics was not entirely new; Louis Braille adapted simple ways to create the first system for writing to the blind. But its success depended on the reception of people who had sinned before the social status of blindness was reversed, and the process was shaped by widespread debates about the place of people with disabilities in society.

• Provide a content map:
  Finish the introduction with an overview of your site structure. An overview should give the reader a general idea of ​​what each paragraph of your article is examining.

The Body of the Essay:
 

The theme of your article is when you make arguments that support your thesis statement, provide evidence, and develop your ideas. His main purpose is to present, interpret and analyse the information and sources you have gathered to support your argument.

• Length of body text:
  The length of the body depends on the type of description. On average, the body comprises 60-80% of your material. In a high school essay, this can be just three paragraphs, but with a 6,000-word graduate essay, the body can take 8-10 pages.

• Section layout/Paragraph Structure:
  In order to give your essay a clear structure, it is important to use paragraphs and topics. This makes the content unwanted and easy to digest. Each section should focus on a point of view or a single point of view.
  The purpose of each paragraph is presented using topic sentences. The topic clause creates a transition from the previous paragraph and informs the argument to be made in this paragraph. Change words can be used to create smooth transitions between sentences.
  After the topic sentence, demonstrate evidence by providing the reader with data, examples or quotes. Be sure to interpret and explain the evidence, and show how the paragraph helps improve your overall argument.

Conclusion of an Essay:
 

Conclusion The last paragraph of the article or paper. It takes about 10-20% of your article. Strong conclusion:

• Draws connections between the arguments made in the body of the story.
• State the consequences of your argument.
• Emphasize the importance and importance of a thesis statement of policy, education or the wider world.
• Evaluates key findings and the importance of the topic
  A good conclusion should end with a memorable or impactful sentence that emphasizes the importance of your work and leaves the reader with a strong final impression.

What you should not do is enter the end
 

To make the end of your article as strong as possible, there are a few things you should avoid including. The most common errors are:

Includes new argument or evidence.

Minimize your conflicts (e.g. "This is one way for many").

Concluding phrases such as “Cheating…” or “Conclusion…” are used.

How to write an essay

• The story begins with a hook that catches your reader's interest.
• Introduction provides background and context that help your reader understand the topic.
• The introduction contains a thesis statement that provides focus and reflects your position on the topic.
• Paragraphs and titles are used for story planning.
• Each paragraph deals with a single idea, debate or issue.
• Subject sentences are used to create a smooth transition between paragraphs.
• The conclusion is not only brief, but draws a link between issues.
• The significance of the thesis statement is emphasized in the conclusion.
• Conclusion does not contain new ideas, arguments or evidence.

Types of Essays

Below are the various types of essays:

Scientific Essay

Before writing your essay, first and foremost, you need to know and understand what an essay on science is. So, what is a scientific essay? A scientific essay is an article whereby you have to analyse a scientific issue or problem and then try to develop a solution on the basis of factual information and perhaps provide some of your opinions from your own perspective on the matter as well. Essays on science can be considered different from other types of essays considering the freedom they allow. In other types of essays, you can express yourself. But, in scientific essays, there is little to no room to do so. Contrariwise, science essays seek out impartial logicality and accurate knowledge. Also, these essays test your judgment skills and analysis.

Literary Essay

A literary essay is a type of essay which involves closely studying a text, interpreting its meanings, and exploring why the author made certain choices. It can be applied to novels, short stories, plays, poems, or any other form of literary writing.

A literary analysis essay is not just a summarized version of the plot or a book review. Rather, it is a type of argumentative and analytical essay where you need to analyse various textual elements such as the language, perspective, and structure of the text, and explain how the author uses literary devices to create meaning and convey ideas.

Before beginning a literary analysis essay, it’s essential to carefully read the text and come up with a thesis statement to keep your essay focused. A literary essay follows the same structure as any academic essay:

• An introduction that defines what the rest of the essay is focused on.
• A main body, divided into paragraphs, that builds an argument using evidence from the text.
• A conclusion that clearly states the main point that you have shown with your analysis.

Narrative Essay

The first step in writing an outstanding narrative essay is learning the narrative essay definition. There is no universal definition of narrative essay simply because of how broad and all-encompassing this genre of writing is.

However, when asked to define narrative essay, most academic writers will say that it’s a piece of writing telling a story using a variety of literary device. The narrative essay format is one of the most personal ones in academic writing, but it also requires you to have extensive knowledge of the writing process, not just rely on your own experiences.

Descriptive Essay

Description is a tool that writers use to keep things live for their readers, to make sure their audience is fully immersed in the words on the page. Every time you tell someone a story, or when you tell someone something, you either use the description or you don't know it. The description is basically "I have a blue car" or "That beautiful baby" or "Flowers soften the sun's golden rays and start showing their bright colours". Descriptive words are used to provide more detail and provide more insight. In fact, commentary is a tool that allows many authors (and speakers) to show up instead of just saying, and enabling our readers to interpret our material.

There are two basic types of Objective and Subjective. The meaning of purpose is shown in the first two examples above; Provides a true account of the item. Co-explanation provides a personal examination of the details by selecting specific words and phrases, such as clarifying the colours in the example above. Vibration not only provides information on colours, but also gives the idea or judgment of the value in the description. Many interpretations provide a mixture of both, giving the audience an idea of ​​the emotional state of the subject being described.

Descriptive essays often describe a person, place, or thing that uses sensitive information. The structure of the descriptive text is more flexible than other filtering methods. The introduction of a descriptive article should set the tone and point of the essay. The thesis should convey the author's general opinion of the person, place, or thing described in the body paragraphs.

Article organization can better track spatial order, classification of ideas according to physical characteristics or appearance. Depending on the author's description, the movement can move from top to bottom, left to right, near and far, warm, cold, inviting, and so on.

Example, if the theme was the customer's kitchen during the renovation, you could start heading to one side of the room and then slowly to the other side, explaining materials, cabinetry, and so on. Or, you can choose to start with the old kitchen remnants and move on to new installations. Maybe start at the bottom and climb up to the roof.

Reflective Essay

A reflective essay is a type of written assignment where the author analyses the event from the past using a present point of view. The purpose of a reflective essay is to demonstrate the effect of the past event — specifically, what can be learned from the event and how the event helped shape the personality of the individual writing the paper.

In a way, a descriptive essay is somewhat similar to a reflective essay. Both refer to an event from the writer’s past and both can be equally rewarding for the writer, allowing them to relive the event in their thoughts and possibly even get some closure.

However, there is one key difference between a descriptive essay and a reflective essay is that the purpose of a descriptive essay is to simply describe a past event without providing an in-depth look on the effect of the event on the writer’s personality and present life.

You can use rich language and various literary devices to describe the event, but a descriptive essay barely requires the writer to do any analysis at all. A reflective essay also describes a past event in great detail, but its main purpose is to express the consequences of the event and how they changed the writer’s life and outlook.

The subject of a reflective essay can be nearly anything that influenced your life in a major way. The most popular thing to focus on when writing a reflective essay is a past experience — anything that occurred to you some time in the past. It can be a meeting or conversation with someone that left a lasting impression on you.

Expository Essay

An expository essay is a piece of writing where the author’s job is to introduce the audience to a particular concept.

The big and key difference between an expository essay and a persuasive essay is that the expository essay does not require the author to address his personal attitude to the subject, whereas writing a persuasive essay means expressing an opinion and attempting to convince the audience that it’s the only possibly correct opinion.

After learning the expository essay definition, it’s easy to think that this written assignment is pretty straightforward and can be mastered very quickly. That is why many students are surprised to learn that there are actually six main types of expository essays that are commonly used in modern schools:

1. Definition essay, where the writer attempts to give a more precise definition to a concept that has been already defined by other scholars;
2. Classification essay, where the writer takes a complete concept and breaks it down into groups and pieces;
3. Problem and solution essay, which requires the writer to define a problem and then offer a solution that has the highest chance of solving the problem;
4. Cause and effect essay, where the writer needs to cover the reasons for the subject in question happening and the possible results of the event;
5. Process essay, also known as the “how-to essay”, where the writer describes the steps in a particular procedure that will lead to the desired result;
6. Comparison and contrast essay, where the writer compares two subjects and defines their differences and similarities.

On paper, the assignment of writing an expository essay seems easy, but, as we have already established, there are six types and even more variations of expository essays that you may encounter throughout your academic journey.

The purpose of an expository essay, in general, is to give the readers a detailed introduction of the subject of the paper, but in reality, your job can be different. Always carefully check the writing prompt to see which type of essay you are required to write — only then will you be able to choose the appropriate expository essay format, structure, and content.

Argumentative Essay

An argumentative essay is a type of essay where the writer’s objective is to convince the reader that his opinion is correct by providing compelling arguments backed up by strong evidence.

An argumentative essay follows the same format as other academic essays. However, it is often believed that writing an argumentative essay is as easy as simply voicing your opinion. In reality, even though a personal opinion is an important part of the essay, it’s the arguments and evidence that make the work complete.

When learning how to write argumentative essay, it’s important to remember that the focus and most vital point of an argumentative essay is the argument itself. The rest of the paper, including the introduction, conclusion, and most of the body paragraphs, are simply there to set the context for the subject of the essay and offer support to the argument.

The argument of the argumentative essay is the backbone of the paper that holds it together. You should first state your main argument right in the introduction of the essay and then refer to it several times in the paper, so make sure to make it clear, concise, and able to resonate with the audience.

Imaginative Essay

An imaginative essay is an essay which is fictional in nature and is written completely from the author’s imagination. It may involve partial real-life events but the overall outcome is fictional. It tests the creative ability of a writer in formulating new thoughts, ideas and concepts.

An imaginative essay is narrative and descriptive in style and follows the same format as most academic essays including an introduction, the main body and the conclusion.

E-Writing

E-writing or Electronic writing refers to any text created with (and usually intended for viewing on) a computer, smartphone, or similar digital device. It is also known as digital writing.

E-writing writing formats include texting, instant messaging, emailing, blogging, tweeting, and posting comments on social media sites such as Facebook.

The main difference between offline and e-writing techniques is that while people buy newspapers and magazines intending to read them, on the Internet people generally browse. One must grab their attention and hold their interest. This means that, on the whole, e-writing is more concise and pithier and should offer the reader greater interactivity.

E-writing is not simply a matter of learning about and integrating new digital tools into writing processes, practices, skills, and habits of mind. E-writing is about the dramatic changes in the ecology of writing and communication and, indeed, what it means to write—to create and compose and share

Below are a few examples of E-writing formats:

Blogs

Blogging is considered to be the newswire of the digital revolution. It is a powerful tool for communicating company business stories. It is a way to engage new audiences and build relationships with existing customers and to position a business as a thought leader in its field.

Blogs, short for web logs, are online platforms to create specific types of content, share them and interact with audiences. They may have a number of common features such as comment possibilities, trackbacks, and a Really Simple Syndication (RSS) technology. Generally, business blogs are non – commercial and non-promotional in nature and regularly updates the current information in content entries.

Today, every company and individual write blogs which helps them to express their ideas, perceptions, and information to their target audience. It is a platform of expression. It helps to generate customer value.

Characteristics of a Blog

Blogbasics.com has listed the characteristics of a blog which are as follows:

1. A blog has some form of navigation, typically consisting of menus.

2.     A blog’s layout contains a header, footer, and content.  Typically, there is at least one sidebar running beside the content.

3.     A blog must have various categories of posts.

4.     It should contain a section that readers can access the archives, previous posts.

5.     A blog post can contain text, images, videos and various other forms of media.

6.     A blog posts can contain links to other posts, both within a blog and to the entire web.

7.     A blog should contain a contact page and form.

8.     It should contain an 'about us' page.

9.     It may also display of recent posts, a plugin that automatically sends a new post details to Twitter or Facebook, image galleries and the ability to turn the post into an easy to print a document.

10. For writing a blog no technical knowledge is required. Only basics and understanding about the subject helps to create effective blogs.

11. Instant distribution of information to millions of masses across the globe.

12. A blog is systematically organized.

13. Search engine magnets and search engine optimized content to find the types of content required.

14. Permalinks means any author who writes a blog also has a link to his bio, other articles details etc. so, a reader gets a chance to connect with the author directly.

Email

Emails are basically letters sent electronically. They can be long or short, formal or informal. Although for business purposes only formal emails are considered important.

Emails have become a dominant form of communication. Being able to write polished, relevant email is now a critical skill in college and work.

Formal Email:

• Written for a professor, colleague, manager, etc.

• Must always be professional.

• Accurate grammar, punctuation, and spelling necessary

Example:

Dear Professor Johnson,

I was unable to attend class today due to a doctor’s appointment. If you have a moment, can you let me know what I missed and what homework I need to complete on Friday?

Thank you,

Julia Smith.

Email Format:

• Greetings / Salutation:
  A formal email greeting is similar to a letter greeting. When you write a letter to a stranger, you put the question “Who Can Worry About You”? When applying for a job, you were addressing the person, “Dear Hiring Manager.” If you know the name of the recipient, you put “Mr. Dear Mr.M /. Smith. "For formal greetings, you should not use the recipient's first name or the informal greetings" Hello "or" Hello."

• Physical Categories/ Body Paragraphs:
  It is important to remember that the email needs to be shorter.

     I hope that all goes well for you.

     Thank you for your prompt response.

However, in official emails it is best to understand the point. Depending on the topic, you should have four main roles and each paragraph should have one point. In your last paragraph you should provide a "thank you" or "call to action" depending on the topic of your email.

     Thank you for your help with

     Thank you for your time and look forward to hearing from you.

     Please feel free to call me or email me if you have any questions. If this can be taken care of immediately.

• Closing:
  As a greeting, the closing of the official email can be the same as the closing of the book. However, unlike mourning, there are many ways to close.

     Thank you

     Very humbly

     Sincerely

It is also helpful to add your post (if any) and a phone number under your name in paragraph 4.

For example:
Yours sincerely,
Julia Smith
President of Student Body
Menlo College
(555) 555-5555

• Tips:

     DO NOT use a contract.
Example: no, no, I'm not, I'm not.

     DO NOT write about all the coins.

     Use structured vocabulary and sentence structure. DO NOT use slang.

Close email at least twice and get a second opinion if possible.
 

Job Applications

The application process for internships, internships, and graduate / professional programs usually requires a personal statement or application letter. This type of writing invites writers to present their skills with confidence and accuracy, which can be challenging.

Although the requirements are different in application and application, the purpose of this type of writing is to represent your goals, experiences and qualifications in the best possible light, and to demonstrate your writing ability. Your personal statement or request letter to present to your potential employer or program manager, so it's important that you take enough time to write a piece of creative writing.

Below is the application writing procedure:

• Prepare your materials:
  Before you sit down and write, prepare something to prevent frustration during the writing process itself. Obtain copies of documents such as transcript, resumes and original application form; keeping them in front of you will make your writing career a lot easier. Make a list of important information, with specific names and specific topics for employers and directors, job titles you have worked on, dates for relevant work or volunteer experiences, jobs involved etc. This way, you will be able to look at these materials while writing to include as much detail as possible.

• Write a first draft:
  After you've compiled and reviewed these materials, it's time to start writing. The following is a list of concerns that authors should keep in mind when writing a personal statement / request letter.

Below is an example of a job application letter which can be used as a template for your letters:

Reports

The success of a business or industrial organization lies in doing its job for this purpose, gathering information and passing it on to those who need it is important. In the broader collection and transfer of information is happening all the time in every area of ​​formal life. So scientists, working brokers, testers, journalists, and various professionals, government and private organizations are asked to write and report to their management on important topics at the institution or the person involved.

Reports can be as short as a few sentences and as long as a few large pages. Although reports can be verbal and informal, here we are concerned with written and formal reports.

Features of Writing a Good Report

• Requirement:
  When organizing and preparing your reports you need to know who your audience is and whether or not your content meets their interests and needs.

• Accessibility:
  Legitimacy has to do with how easy or readable it is. As most reports in normal cases type, all meetings with good typing should be followed. If there are handwritten reports, special attention should be given to writing clearly and clearly. Any departure from the above requirement will prove displeasing to your audience.

• Clarity and Readability:
  Clarity, durability and systematic presentation of readable content. The concept is summarized better than the following:
  The author does a lot by giving his reader a lot of information and taking away from him a little time.
  In this regard the following five goals are met:

• Conciseness:
  Just like unwanted fat in the body, padding, prolixity and repetition violates the respect of good writing, not to mention the respect they wrote for you. So 'agree' and 'prefer' will be more acceptable than pompous 'agree with' and 'prefer'. As such, why use 'at that point in time' and at a time when we have the best and most economical holdings at that time 'and' when '. Viewed from the point of view of the report, or requested for the report, a good report will contain four important details, an analysis of the information, conclusions and recommendations. It should always be remembered that effective reporting requires special attention to the needs and expectations of the reader. It means that the author of the report has to 'snap a picture', he must think and understand himself.

Structure of a Formal Report

A formal report is comprised of the following sections:

1. Title Page

The title page includes the main title of the report, it must be short and concise. You can also include the word counts of your summary and main body.

B.     Table of Contents

Help your reader quickly and easily find what they are looking for by using informative headings and careful numbering of your sections and sub-sections.

For example:

C.    Introduction

The introductory part of the report comprises of statement of the objectives of the report and how the report should be treated by the readers. It should indicate towards the problem that is going to be addressed in the main body. It should be catchy and interesting to grasp the attention of the reader from the very start.

D.    The Body

The main body consists of the central theme or the main idea of the report. It can be divided into a number of sections and subsections to separate your research and subsequent findings in a logical order.

E.     Figures, Graphs, Formulae and Tables

This section consists of the statistical representation of the data you have collected. Ideas should be conveyed in the form which is most suitable to the reader and easily understandable by the reader. Excessive use of these tools should be avoided.

F.     Conclusion

The conclusion is a kind of summing up of all the points you have stated in the main text. It should be a definite solution to the problem introduced during the introductory part of the report. The conclusion must be short and to the point.

G.   Summary

Summarize all the key points stated in the report including your research, your findings and your conclusion. The summary should feel like a brief overview of your investigations and outcomes. The summary should be constructed in such a way that it can be called a stand-alone document on its own.

H.    References

References must include detailed information of all your citations and the sources of material quoted in your texts. It can also include bibliography for further reading.

I.       Appendices

This is the last element of a report. It refers to any material which can be useful in the detailed understanding of your subject. It is not meant for the casual reader but for readers who are highly interested in the subject.

Resume

A resume is a short document used to summarize the job search and qualifications of the prospective employer. The resume includes contact details for the job seeker, work experience, education, and the appropriate skills to support the job application.
 

Your renegotiation is a critical part of today's job application process. Writing a good resume is more important than ever now that online job posts tend to attract hundreds if not thousands of applicants. A refurbished, ready-to-start application will increase your chances of getting an interview while poorly written resumes may be lost at sea of ​​applicants.
 

Resume vs. CV

Sometimes you will see the words go on and the CV is used interchangeably. They are not the same. The resume is a short documentary designed to market your professional skills while the cv contains an informative list of your expertise, of your courses, and other information.
C.V stands for curriculum ("course of life"). CVS are separate by design. Think of them as an encyclopaedia version of your professional life, taking your career history, education, credentials, relationships, publication and professionalism. They can extend well over three or four pages.
In the united states, CV’s are usually limited to professions with general positions where deep expertise is critical, such as academics, science and medicine. These CV’s are filled with extended education categories, work history, internships, gigs talk, teaching appointments, magazine publishing and other information that establishes trust.
Re-use across many industries and very short on just one or two pages. That's because the resume is not intended to capture all the details of your previous experience. Your resume should be designed and updated based on the details of each activity you use. Negative jobs in past jobs can be eliminated to save space and attract more attention to your used and accessible skills.

How to write the resume:

1. Select the resume format and the categories you need

2. Always include contact details, work experience, and education

3. Use traditional topics for high compliance

4. Apply practical skills directly to the job description

5. Replace basic tasks with impactful performance

6. Do not include an old goal statement or reference section

7. Preview and double-check what you wrote

8. Save as docx file (optional) or pdf.
If you think you are done, ask someone else to take care of you. Alternatively, take it to jobscan for a quick answer.

Contents of a Good Resume

At the very least, your start-up should include your contact details, work experience, and education. Additional job summary sections, skills, volunteer work, and additional qualifications can be added when related to the job you work for.
The work ethic here is "worth it." remember that your resume is intended to quickly highlight the reasons why you are well prepared for the job. It is not intended to explain all the tasks you have done. Instead of simply listing your daily obligations from past activities, read the job listing and try to find the answer to each of the requirements listed. This is likely to get the attention of an employer who can only look at your return for a few seconds. It also broadens your application tracking system to apply to algorithms that help companies identify top candidates.
Below you will find out which parts of the restart to include in your start-up and how to adapt to the job you are looking for.
 

Elements of a Resume

Contact information:

The title of your start-up should include the following information:

• Name
• Phone number
• Location (city, country, zip code)
• Email address
• Linked profile URL
  It may seem obvious, but job seekers sometimes forget an important piece of contact information in this section. Double check and make it as easy as possible for employers to contact you for job interviews.

Phone number:
Enter a personal phone number, not a work number. Enter your city, state, and zip code (e.g. “Seattle, WA 98104”). This is important as other applicant tracking systems allow employers to filter the candidates based on location. Employers will always start with local selectors first. If you are traveling from somewhere, write down your current location and your future location.

Email address:
Use a valid email address. An email address based around your name is correct, such as jackieromano12@email.com. Your "happy" email address may work well in your life, but the terms "beersnob88" or "biebersuperfan" may not be so clear. Even using a seemingly outdated email client - such as aol or Hotmail - can harm your prospects. Consider creating a free Gmail account for your search.

Linked Profile url:
If the employer is surprised by your qualifications, they will look at your online profiles. All job seekers should create a strong LinkedIn profile and include a url in their resume. This will make the life of the employer a little easier and help them to cross-check the claims on your resume.

Work experience:
Part of the work experience is the heart of your resume. Separate this category from a clear, existing topic, such as "work experience," "work experience," or "employment history." this will help guide employers towards your resume and ensure that the applicant tracking system (ats) is well defined.

Under the main heading, list each activity in chronological order. Each function should have its own sub-heading that includes the following information:

• Company
• Workplace
• Your job title
• Start and end dates

For example:

• ABC corporation, settle
• Distribution manager (01/2017-present)
  The first things an employer looks for in your resume are the topics of the work you hold and the number of companies you've worked with. This format not only makes it easy for them to access that information, but our research has found that this sequence also provides greater ats compatibility.

Under each subheading, include responsibilities and measurable outputs that are relevant to the job you are working on. Remember, you don't have to include all the activities that were part of your daily routine. Use your available space to highlight the skills and knowledge requested in the job description. Jobscan helps you decide exactly what skills are requested and whether or not you have highlighted them.

Education:
When you have a few years into your career, your education level may also be reduced under your resume. Unless you're using a profession that places more emphasis on education (such as academics, law, or medicine), most job seekers can escape by simply providing the following information on their resume:

• Agency name

• Stem

• School location

• Years visited
If you have just graduated from college, your education level surpasses your professional experience and includes many details. Skills developed in school are real skills that are important in the professional world. Recent rooms can include appropriate coursework, communities, organizations, and extracurriculars that strengthen their identity.

Activities:
98% of fortune 500 companies use applicant tracking systems (ats) to filter, filter, and enter applicants. Other atss, such as taleo, can automatically add your own content to the job description, allowing employers to focus only on the best "applicants". Employers are also looking at their application site to find keywords, such as "customer service," "accounts available," or "adobe photoshop."

Overloading or coming up as a search result is about adding complex skills and keywords to your resume. A good way to identify key skills in a list and search algorithms is to identify which skills are most prominent in the job description. Aligning these skills to your resume, where applicable, increases your chances of being selected for an interview

Strong skills should apply to all your resume capabilities. Entering the skills category for your start-up is not a prerequisite, but it can help you have a natural place to list the essential skills in the job you work for. The dedicated skills section also makes your resume much easier for employers trying to quickly find out if you meet their needs.

If you are using the skills section, remember that the list of skills and keywords is not enough. Add context to these skills to your full potential so employers can believe. This includes factors such as projects you have used in skills, the number of years of experience in a given skill, or the level of your expertise.

Historical and free:
Some restart forms allow space for some optional components. Only use the category of awards or honors in your resume if it makes sense for the job you work for. Active reputations will improve your credibility while poor prizes simply distract you from your best titles. For example, decide to get a monthly career or get a great customer satisfaction rating for your department, but maybe not if you are a kart race expert in your free time.

Volunteer work and study:
The work you do as an active volunteer can add to your qualifications and skill set as all paid experience. Also, the word "works." highlight the volunteer work of your startup that uses the skills that apply to the job you work for. Carefully list voluntary organizations or affiliated organizations, such as political or religious organizations.

What you can leave from your view:

• Statement of note:
  The statement of intent has been used as a standard for the restart and appears in other implementation templates. Traditionally, the purposeful statements were a brief introduction to the resume which explains why the submission is returned. For example, "purpose: to secure a position as a communications manager at a leading sales centre."

Including a purpose that you can restart these days can make you appear later. The job summary statement replaced the purpose of today's reboot. Any other information can serve as a cover letter.

While a statement of objectives describes your goals, a concise statement outlines how you can add value to the company.

• Examinations:
  It is not necessary to write your directions in your resume unless otherwise stated in the job description. In addition, it is assumed that you have references, so there is no need to include "references available on request" either. Use the space you save to add additional skills and achievements.
   
• Soft skills:
  When it comes to your resume, soft skills are not nearly as important as technical skills. That is because it is difficult to demonstrate within the context of a restart. For example, an employer will not take your name from you if you say "you work hard" or "you solve a problem." in fact, it looks like it's short.

Instead of simply writing soft skills, find opportunities to show off your interpersonal and behavioural skills. Achievements and measurable results are a great way to do this. For example, instead of saying "hard work," indicate in writing that you have completed x projects that are more than your department average.

• Gpa:
  Only list your GPA as part of your continuing education program if you have recently graduated from college and have a good GPA, similar to a 3.5 or better with a 4.0 rating. There are a few exceptions. Some industries, as professionals, are waiting to see your GPA.

Length of your resume:
While a one-page start-up is sometimes considered to be the best, a two-page resume may be required after five or ten years of staffing, especially if all of your experience is relevant to the job you are pursuing. Managers sometimes have three or more pages running.

That said, your resume should not be longer than it should. Short, step-by-step resumes will easily be digested and highlight your most important skills. After writing your resume, try removing the excess fluff and inappropriate content to reduce your page count and draw your attention to your best titles. No matter how many pages you start, try putting your most impressive titles at the top of the first page with a summary or category of skills.

There are several different ways to format your resume. Choosing the right format will make the writing process easier. When choosing a format, consider the function you are using for it. The chronological, compositional, and functional styles of each work serve a specific purpose.

Letter Writing

Writing letters is an art and a strategy. The latter can be followed by following formal meetings; the former must be nurtured with the care and deepest interest of man. The letters are generally divided into the following four categories: friendly or informal letters, business letters; invitations and responses, as well as the use of functions.

Parts of a letter

It is convenient to divide all letters into 10 parts:

• Sender's address
• Date
• Direction (the address of the person(s) to whom you are writing)
• Salutation
• Reference (not always necessary in intimate, personal letters)
• Body
• Subscription
• Signature
• Postscript (to be as a rule avoided, unless absolutely necessary)
• The envelope.

As these are mostly (except for the body of the letter) matters of form, we will illustrate each one of them. Often there are alternative forms, but you must choose one of them and use it consistently.

• Sender's address:

(a)  Laxmi Niwas,
52 Mall Road,
Civil Lines,
Kanpur 208 016

(b)  D 64 Press Road,
Nauroji Nagar,
Mysore 570 006

(c)  Department of Linguistics,
University of Delhi,
Delhi 110 007.

• Date:

(a)  October 25, 1988

(b)  25th October, 1988

• Direction:

(a)  The Personnel Manager,
Life Insurance Corporation of India,
Bhubaneshwar, 751 006.

(b)  Messrs Atma Ram & Sons,
3B Asaf Ali Roa,
New Delhi 110 001 .

(c)  Professor N. G. Arunachalam,
Department of Civil Engineering,
University Engineering College,
Hyderabad 500 007.

(d) Ms. Kavita Swaroop,
4/D Indira Colony,
Jawahar Nagar,
Agra 282 005.

(Messrs is used for an unlimited company or partnership of traders) (The same address is to be repeated on the envelope.)

• Salutation:

(a)  Dear Sir/Madam,

(b)  Sir/Madam, (in strictly formal letters to and from government departments or officials)

(c)  Dear Sirs/Gentlemen, (in the case of unlimited company, firm or partnership of traders or from a clerk to the Board of Directors, when 'Gentlemen' is preferred)

(d) Dear Mr. Swaminathan,

(e)  Dear Swaminathan,

(f)    My dear Swaminathan/My dear Mr. Swaminathan, ('My dear' shows extra intimacy)

(g) My dear Ravi, (very intimate and friendly)

(a)  Reference:( in professional or business letters)

(b) Sale of Old Stock (between salutation and the body of the letter) (usually placed above the direction)   

(c)  Our ref...

(d)  Your ref...

• Body: (the main part of the Letter, the subject matter of which will differ in each case)

• Subscription:

(a)  Yours faithfully. (most common form in formal, official and business letters)

(b)  Yours truly. (somewhat warmer than the above)

(c)  Yours sincerely, (cordial and friendly)

(d)  Yours affectionately. Very sincerely yours, Yours ever, in very intimate personal letter

Layout of a letter

1. Font and Margins

Before writing a letter, it must be kept in mind that the letter should not only be simple to understand but easy to read as well. Set your margins to be one or one and a half inches per each side of the document, this will help your letter look professional. Using simple fonts like Verdana, Arial, Calibri or Times New Roman with a 12-point size will give your official letter a clean look as well.

2. Heading and Subject

Once your fonts are set, you can begin addressing your letter. First, write your name in the top left-hand corner of the page. Include your name, address and the current date. You can also include your phone number and email if you are requesting further contact.

While writing the recipient's address information, remember to put it directly beneath yours. Write their name, title of their organization if they are representing one, followed by the address. Review the name and address of your recipient more than once to ensure you've written the correct address and spelled their name right.

3. Salutation

You can now professionally greet your reader. A common salutation used in official letters is, "Dear Ms. Or Mr. Last name". If you know both their first name or last name, you can include that in the salutation. For example, you can write, "Dear Alex Smith". If you know their gender, you can write, "Dear Mr. Alex Smith" or "Dear Ms. Alex Smith". If you're unaware of the name of the recipient, you can write, "Dear Sir or Madam".

4. The Body

The body paragraphs are where you can capture your main points and professionally explain your concerns, opinions or other information to your recipient. This is the part where your introduction and the purpose of the letter comes in. You can use verbiage such as, "I am writing to you today because..."

Once you've explained what the recipient will read, you can expand further throughout the next paragraph. Include details that support your first statement. For example, if you were writing a recommendation letter, you could expand on the skills of the person your recommending by saying, "Avery's time-management and organizational skills have improved the efficiency of my business by 12% since the beginning of the quarter."

You can continue giving examples until you believe your point has been clearly understood by the reader. Keep your sentences short, simple and easy for the reader to understand.

5. Conclusion and Signature

After finishing the body of the letter, the conclusion should be written. This paragraph can be short and will finalize the document by repeating your main point, explaining any possible next steps or thanking the recipient for taking the time to read your letter.

After closing the letter, you can provide your closing signature at the end of the document. Examples of common letter signatures are:

Sincerely

Sincerely yours

With appreciation

Thank you

Regards

Yours truly

Respectfully yours

Carefully select your closing signature as per the requirements and input name at the bottom of the letter.

6. Enclosures

Enclosures are additional materials added to your letter to support your document, similar to when you attach a file to an email. If you're attaching a document to complement your letter, you should mention it near the end of your letter. To inform the reader that an additional document is attached, you can include the word "enclosure" at the end of the letter after your name. You can also shorten the word by writing, "encl."

Write your name and address in the top left-hand corner of the envelope followed by the recipient's name and address in the middle. Now your letter is ready to be sent to the recipient.

Features of a Good Letter

1. Knowing What to Say:
   Nothing is more harmful to good communication than muddle-headedness resulting in not being able to make one's point. Before writing a letter, one should be sure of what one wants to say and accordingly one should be in command of all the necessary facts and information arranged logically and systematically.

2.     Clarity:
Knowing what one wants to say is not enough unless one says it in as clear a Language as possible. Here comes the importance of the right word and the right expression put in a sentence constructed neatly and with precision. It should, however, be remembered that right words and write expressions become relevant only when they occur in the right place. Thus, emotional and even flowery language may be apposite to a personal Letter but it will be completely out of place in a business letter.

3.     Brevity:
A few generations ago, when man enjoyed unlimited space and time, prolixity in language would not have been unwelcome, at Least in certain kinds of correspondence. In the modern age, however, addition of even one extra word cost time and energy most people will like to avoid. It is all the more the business correspondence. It means that all redundancy, be it a quotation illustration, an elaboration, in short, padding of any kind, must be avoided at all costs.

4.     Accuracy:
Avoidance of redundant helps achieve accuracy of statement. For much unwanted language in letters is the direct result of inaccurate and inconsistent thoughts and statements. A little care, particularly habitual revision of what one has written, will go a long way towards making writing accurate.

5.     Courtesy:
As remarked earlier, a letter reveals its writer's personality and character. Since there is always a 'you' in every letter, it is necessary that this 'you' or the addressee be shown all the courtesy and respect that language can express. Even when a complaint is lodged or a statement or application rejected, care should be taken that it is couched in polite and civilized language. It is worth remembering that while courtesy costs nothing, there is hardly anything more abrasive than impolite language.

6.     Good Looks:
Finally, a letter must be a visual attraction to the reader. It can displease either through wrong spelling and punctuation or bad writing and typing. These are not matters merely of form as even a well-thought out-letter, rich in ideas and having all the qualities of clarity, brevity, accuracy and courtesy may not only fail to make proper impact on the reader, but may even defeat its purpose by causing him unnecessary annoyance.

Importance of a Business Letter

Promotional Function: By promoting new products and providing better services to business organizations, improving and enhancing the quality of their products. Customers should be informed through these developments. Business organizations have to expand their market by tapping new areas. All-round expansion is possible only if the organization continues to be well-informed by letters to those people and letters promoting them.

Informational work: Business letters provide valuable data about previous policies, transactions and all other activities of the organization. Modern businesses cannot depend on memory like the old days. If they are available then the letters are ready reference. New policies can be developed by studying earlier. Not only is it necessary to maintain good correspondence, but it is also more necessary to make them available in the files.

Legal work: Business letters can provide evidence in legal disputes, if any, which is in a transaction. They are useful as legal documents in quotes and offers.

Goodwill work: Business letters promote goodwill among business parties that trade. They make a good rapport between the parties in business transactions.

Convey information: The fundamental reason for any business letter is to pass on information in regards to practice business exercises. Information can be transmitted through the business letter to clients, providers, indebted individuals, government experts, monetary organizations, bank, and insurance agencies and to any different gatherings related to the business.

Conclude exchange: One of the particular functions of a business letter is to finish up an exchange. In finished exchanges business letter are as often as possible utilized.

Creation of markets: Business letter are particularly significant for creating interest for new products and services and market creation.

Creation of generosity: In this electronic period, messages can be sent inside a couple of moments through electronic media however a very much beautified business letter has its own significance in creating a positive picture of the company.