Module I

Basic principles of Electric circuits

1.1             Review of Ohm’s law

Ohms Law: It states that the current through the conductor between two points is directly proportional to the voltage across the two points

V α I

V= IR

V = voltage across terminals in volts

R = resistance in ohms

I= current in Amperes

1.2             Definition of Resistance, Current, Voltage and Power - Series and Parallel circuits

Circuit element resistance

Resistor:-

V=IR

P=I2R

Behaviour of Resistance:-

t=0-  t=0   t=0+  t=∞

R    R      R     R

Factors affecting resistance, series & parallel combination of resistances

Resistance is affected by temperature

R1|| R2  

Inductor

1. Active - FET, diode
2. Passive - R, L, C

Storage of energy

Based on electromagnetic induction

Faraday’s Law

Φ∝ i

Φ = L.i

Relaxed inductor I0 = 0 

Current Carrying Inductor:  

L = L1+L2

Capacitor:

Charge storing device (voltage)

Q ∝ V

Q = C V

Relaxed capacitor

charged capacitor

Electrostatic Energy

Inductor do not respond any change as far as current is concerned.

Capacitor does not respond any change as far as voltage is concerned.

Definition of Open circuit and short circuit

R=∞

V=0  or V≠ 0

I=0

Short Circuit: 

V = 0

R = 0

I may or may not be zero

1.3             Constant voltage source and Constant current source

Categories of sources

1. Voltage source and current source
2. A.C. Source and D.C. Source
3. Dependent source and independent source
4. Constant and function of time source

few either

AC or DC  

dc


 

Equivalent circuit diagram of

1. Voltage Source: A voltage source always have a resistance in series. 

Ideal source

R = 0

Practical = 2 - 5Ω

I = 0

2.     Current Source: Always have R parallel with the source.

Ideal and Practical Sources (Independent Sources only)

Ideal and practical Voltage and Current source:

A voltage source is a device which provides a constant voltage to load at any instance of time and is independent of the current drawn from it. This type of source is known as an ideal voltage source. Practically, the ideal voltage source cannot be made. It has zero internal resistance. It is denoted by this symbol.

Fig:  Voltage source symbol

Ideal Voltage Source

Fig: Ideal Voltage Source

The graph represents the change in voltage of the voltage source with respect to time. It is constant at any instance of time.

Voltage sources that have some amount of internal resistance are known as a practical voltage source. Due to this internal resistance, voltage drop takes place. If the internal resistance is high, less voltage will be provided to load and if the internal resistance is less, the voltage source will be closer to an ideal voltage source. A practical voltage source is thus denoted by a resistance in series which represents the internal resistance of source.

Practical Voltage source

Fig: Practical Voltage source

The graph represents the voltage of the voltage source with respect to time. It is not constant but it keeps on decreasing as the time passes.

Current source

A current source is a device which provides the constant current to load at any time and is independent of the voltage supplied to the circuit. This type of current is known as an ideal current source; practically ideal current source is also not available. It has infinite resistance. It is denoted by this symbol.

Ideal Current source

Fig: Ideal Current source

The graph represents the change in current of the current source with respect to time. It is constant at any instance of time.

Why ideal Current source has infinite resistance?

A current source is used to power a load, so that load will turn on. We try to supply 100% of the power to load. For that, we connect some resistance to transfer 100% of power to load because the current always takes the path of least resistance. So, in order for current to go to the path of least resistance, we must connect resistance higher than load. This is why we have the ideal current source to have infinite internal resistance. This infinite resistance will not affect voltage sources in the circuit.

Practical Current source

Practically current sources do not have infinite resistance across there but they have a finite internal resistance. So the current delivered by the practical current source is not constant and it is also dependent somewhat on the voltage across it.

A practical current source is represented as an ideal current source connected with resistance in parallel.

Fig; Practical Current source

The graph represents the current of the current source with respect to time. It is not constant but it also keeps on decreasing as the time passes

Network Theorems

1.4             Kirchhoff’s laws- Network analysis by Maxwell's circulation currents

Kirchhoff current and voltage laws

The algebraic sum of currents meeting at a junction or node in a electric circuit is zero or the summation of all incoming current is always equal to summation of all outgoing current in an electrical network.

Explanation

Assuming the incoming current to be positive and outgoing current negative we have

Ie incoming current = ∑ outgoing current thus, the above Law can also be stated as the sum of current flowing towards any junction in an electric circuit is equal to the sum of currents flowing away from that junction

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

Statement: the algebraic summation of all Voltage in any closed circuit or mesh of loop zero.

Ie  ∑ Voltage in closed loop = 0 the summation of the Voltage rise (voltage sources) is equal to summation of the voltage drops around a closed loop in 0 circuit for explanation from here

Determination of sigh and direction of currents (Don’t write in exams just for understanding)

Current entering a resistor is +ve and leaving should be –ve

Now

Potential Rise    Potential Drop

We are reading from +V to –V  we are reading from –V to +V

potential drops     potential rise

-V       +V

Given Circuit

First identify no of loops and assign direction of current flowing in loop

Note : no of loops in circuit = No,  of unknown currents = no, of equations in the circuit

Note : keep loop direction and current direction same ie either clockwise or anticlockwise for all loops I1 I2

Now according to direction of direction assign signs (+ve to –ve) to the resistors

Note : voltage sources (V) polarities does not change is constant.

Note: for common resistor between 2 loops appearing in the circuit like R3 give signs according to separate loops as shown

    When considering only loop no 1 (+ R3 - )

-         B

Now consider diagram A and write equations

Two loops two unknown currents two equation

Apply KVL for loop ① [B. Diagram ]

(+ to  drop -) = - sign and (- to rise +) = + sign

for drop = -sign

for rise = + sign

-

-() R2 is considered because in R3,2 currents are flowing and   and we have taken () because we are considering loop no 1 and current flowing is in loop no 1

)

Similarly for loop no. 2 currents flowing is resistor R3 it should be )R3

Consider loop no. 1 apply KVL

- …….①

-

Consider loop no. 2 apply KVL

-…….②

-

After solving equation ① and ② we will get branch current and

1.5             Superposition theorem -Thevenin's theorem - Norton's theorem - simple illustrative problems on network theorems.

Superposition Theorem:

1. This is only applicable to circuits with linear elements.
2. If two or more than two independent sources (voltage or current) are operating in the circuit than voltage across any element or current through any element is sum of current and voltages due to individual sources.

Question 1. Find the current through resistance.

Solution:

1= 0

2=

1 + 2 

Special Case:

Since two voltage sources with different magnitude in parallel which cannot be connected as in single branch two different current is not possible (if 5V than I = zero).

Question:

1 =

2 =

=

1 + 2

=

Thevenin’s And Norton’s Theorem

Thevenin’s equivalent of A

Norton’s equivalent of A

sc = Vth/Rth

• Norton’s equivalent is obtained by source conversion of thevenin’s equivalent circuit.

CONDITIONS FOR APPLICATION

• For network A:

1. Network A should contain linear elements.
2. Network A can have independent and dependent current and voltage source.
3. If network A has dependent source than controlling parameter must lie in network A itself.
4. Network A should not have any source coupling and magnetic coupling.

• For network B:

1. It can have linear and non linear elements.
2. It can have dependent and independent voltage and current sources.
3. It should not have any source and magnetic coupling with network A.

     Method for finding Rth :

Firstly, open circuit terminal A and B.

1. If network is operating with only independent sources:

1. Make all sources zero in network A.
2. Find out the equivalent resistance across terminal A and B.

2.     If network A is operating with independent and dependent sources:

1. Make all independent sources zero in network A.
2. Connect a generation between A and B.

3.     If network is operating with only dependent sources:

Connect generation between A and B

     Method for Vth:

First open circuit terminal A and B.

Find out the voltage between A and B this is Vth

     Method for Isc:

1. Isc =
2. Remove network B and S.C. The terminal A and B and current from terminal A to B Isc.

Question:

Answer:

Finding Isc from circuit directly:

By KCL,

Question:

Answer

Also, clear from circuit that Vth = 1V.

By applying KVL we get,

1-3Isc=0

Isc=A

Que:

Ans;

Rth=3k+2k=5k

By applying KVL we get

Therefore,

Question:

Solution: For Rth

By KCL,

But,

By KVL,

Question:

Solution: Since, no independent source is present so,

Isc = 0

And we know that,

Since Rth cannot be zero

But

Question: Find out the Norton’s equivalent

Solution:

Since, there is no significance of current source

A

Review of electrostatics

1.6             Coulomb's Law

The law states that the electrical force between the two charged objects is directly proportional to the product of charge on object and inversely proportional to the square of distance between them.

F =

d: distance between objects

Q1 and Q2: charges at point 1 and two respectively.

k: proportionality constant

1.7 Electric field strength and electric flux density, Capacitance.

The region in which the influence of an electric charge can be felt is known as electric field. The force experienced by a unit positive charge at a point is called is electric field strength.

E= F/q   N/C or V/m

Electric flux density is defined as the amount of flux passes through unit surface area in the space at right angle to the direction of electric field.

E =

Q: charge

r: distance between the object and field

References:

1. Robert L. Boylestad. Introductory circuit analysis. (Twelfth edition). Pearson

Education, New Delhi. (2012)

2. Cotton, H. Electrical technology. (Seventh edition). CBS Publishers and Distributors,

New Delhi. (2005)

3. Leonard S. Bobrow. Fundamentals of electrical engineering. Oxford University Press,

New Delhi.(1996).

4. Rajendra Prasad. Fundamentals of electrical engineering. (Second edition). PHI

Learning, New Delhi.(2009)

5. Edward Hughes. Electrical technology. Addison Wesley Longman, Boston. (1995).