Unit – 2
Basic Writing Skills
Types of Sentences
Structure in English grammar simply means how the different parts of speech are arranged and organised in a sentence so as to form a complete coherent thought. The English language comprises of many parts such as nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverbs conjunctions, prepositions, adjectives etc. It is through the correct use of these elements in a sentence that it becomes meaningful. Therefore, it is essential to understand how each of these parts of speeches has to be structured in a sentence.
- The Statement or Declarative sentence
Many sentences are labelled as declarative sentences because are used in making a declaration or statement about something. Here are some examples to illustrate declarative sentences.
- That car is really old.
- I love honey on toast.
- The girl likes pancakes, but she doesn’t know how to make them.
These statements are simple to construct and have no frills about them. Then these statements do not depend on being facts. They can be stating an opinion as well. The opinion does not necessarily have to be true but just what the subject thinks.
Also, the declarative sentence uses all tenses. Declarative sentences can employ all types of past, present and future tenses easily.
- I went to the store yesterday.
- I am going to the shop now.
- I will go to the ball game tomorrow.
Affirmative and negative sentences
Declarative sentences can either be positive or negative. When they have a positive meaning, they are known as affirmative or positive sentences. When they contain a negative meaning, they known as negative sentences.
A positive sentence or affirmative sentence will contain a positive assertion or remark. A sentence will always negate an assertion or remark. A positive sentence may or may not contain negative words but its final verdict will always be positive. A positive sentence can be converted into a negative one using negative words such as not, none, nobody, and isn’t.
2. The Question or Interrogative sentence
The purpose of an interrogative sentence is to ask a question in order to obtain an answer. Sometimes an interrogative sentence might be rhetorical in nature, meaning it will ask a question but wont necessarily require an answer. Interrogative sentences in the spoken form may also be sarcastic. Below are some examples of simple interrogative sentences:
- Where are you going?
- What is happening?
- What do you want me to do?
- Do you want me to write something for you?
- Are you going to school today?
There are four types of question sentences. They are:
- Yes/No Interrogatives
- Alternative Interrogatives
- Wh- Interrogatives
- Tag Questions
Yes/No Interrogatives
1. Questions which require a “yes” or “no” answer, are called Yes/No Interrogatives.
Examples:
- Are you going home?
- Will you come with me?
- The answer to each of the above question will be either a “yes” or “no”
How to form Yes/No Interrogatives:
Yes/No Interrogatives are formed with the help of auxiliary verbs. The typical form of such question is:
Auxiliary verb (be, do or have) + subject + main verb or modal verb + subject + main verb
The auxiliary verbs are inverted with the subject (subject – verb inversion) For example:
- Are you going to school?
- Will Jack come tomorrow?
- Have you finished your homework?
- Do you like folk dance?
If a sentence contains more than one auxiliary verb or modal verb, only one auxiliary verb or model should be put before the subject. For example:
- Have you been working for the whole day? (Only “have” has been put before the subject “you”)
Alternative Interrogatives
Alternative Interrogatives are questions that give a choice among two or more answers. Therefore, these questions are also called choice questions. For example:
- Do you prefer coffee or tea?
- Will you come with me now, or will you go with James afterwards?
- Do you prefer to live in the village or the city?
- Will they buy an apartment or villa?
Alternative Interrogatives are also formed with the help of auxiliary verbs. The form of such a question is: auxiliary verb (be, do or have) + subject + main verb or modal verb + subject + main verb. The auxiliary verbs are inverted with the subject (subject-verb inversion)
In the alternative question to be formed, if the main verb is “be”, additional auxiliary verb need not be used. For example:
- Are those flowers roses or Begonias? (Here the main verb, “are” is used to ask the question)
Wh- Interrogatives
Wh- Interrogatives are questions asked using one of the question words, who, what, where, when, why, and how. Auxiliary verbs also have to be used in these types of questions. For example:
- Where are you going?
- How are you doing?
- Why did you do that?
When you use the ‘wh’ and how question words, the questions demand full sentence answers. For example:
#1. Where are you going?
Ans. I am going to the mall.
#2. How are you doing?
Ans. ‘I am doing great.’
#3. Why did you do that?
Ans: ‘Because I wanted to.’
Although in the above examples, the answers are given in single sentences, depending upon the situation, the answer may require long explanation.
Tag questions
Tag questions or question tags are questions formed by attaching question tags onto the end of a declarative sentence. These tags are commonly created using an auxiliary verb inverted with subject. These question tags change the declarative sentences to interrogative sentences.
Examples:
- You are from USA, aren’t you?
- She is watching a film in the T.V.at home, isn’t she?
- You will go to your home town tomorrow, won’t you?
- She was a kind woman, wasn’t she?
- He is not attending the meeting, is he?
Sometimes a declarative sentence can be used as interrogative sentence by putting a question mark at the end of the sentence. When you ask questions like this orally, the last syllable of the sentence should be given proper intonation so as to make the listener understand that a question is being asked to him.
Indirect questions
Indirect questions are question embedded in a statement. For example:
- I asked him where he was staying.
A question, “Where are you staying?” is embedded in this statement. But it should be clearly understood that an interrogative sentence always ask direct questions and indirect question or embedded questions do not come under the category of” Interrogative sentences.”
3. Exclamatory sentence
As a child you may have heard these a lot. When a child steps out of line or makes the wrong decision, parents tend to emphasis what they are saying by using exclamatory sentences.
That is the purpose of exclamation sentences. They express very strong emotion. In listening, it is not hard to identify an exclamation sentence. The tone of the person’s voice will convey that information.
In writing, to make an exclamatory sentence you do need to use the exclamation mark. Writing does not have any sound helping it out, so it needs help from its punctuation friends. Here are a few examples of exclamation sentences:
- I said I wanted pizza!
- I want to go now!
- We are the champions!
- What a cute baby!
Depending upon the situation, there are different methods of expressing or writing exclamatory sentences. Some examples of the common categories are given hereunder.
1. Expressing strong emotion
- Many, many sweet returns of the day!
- Happy New Year!
- Happy Christmas!
2. Those begin with “What”:
- What beautiful scenery!
- What a cute baby!
- What a nice behavior!
3. Those begin with “How”:
- How beautifully she sings!
- How brightly it shines!
- How neatly she has kept her house!
4. Exclamatory sentences containing “such”:
- She is such a kind lady!
- He is such a bright student!
- She is such a wonderful writer!
5. Exclamatory sentences containing “so”:
- She is so glamorous!
- He is so handsome!
- That gentleman is so generous!
It is to be remembered that exclamatory sentences express strong emotion and should be used carefully. They are not to be used to write reports or academic purposes.
4. The Command or Imperative sentence
These are made usually by people who are in authority or are quite bossy. There is no fact and no search for information in these sentences. They also can be used without strong emotion. Imperative sentences are used to command or order people to do something.
Police officers, firemen during a fire, teachers, employers, and parents all use the command sentence quite well. They have the authority to tell people what to do and where to go.
Bossy older brothers and sisters do not have the authority but their place in the family line makes them think they can tell you what to do. Here are a few examples of imperative sentences:
- Get your hands up!
- Do your homework.
- Close the window.
- Go to the bank and make that deposit.
- Go to bed!
In using and hearing the command sentence, again it is the tone of voice by the user that tells you what is meant. In writing, it is the sentence structure as an imperative sentence can use both a period and an exclamation mark.
These sentences normally do not contain a subject. The subject is the person to whom the command is directed towards. To be specific the subject is “you”. It is understood here. That makes imperative sentences second person sentences.
Tenses
Tenses determine whether something has happened, is happening, or will happen. The tense of a verb describes its position in time.
Tenses can be divided into 3 main types and further sub dived into 4 types:
PRESENT TENSES
1. SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE: In this type of tense the action is still taking place, there is no mention of its completeness.
Example: I sleep.
She studies vocabulary every day.
2. PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE: In this type of tense the action is still in progress, therefore the use of the word ‘continuous’.
Example: I am sleeping.
I am eating lunch, I will call you later.
3. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE: In this type of tense the action has already been completed, hence the use of the word ‘perfect’.
Example: I have slept.
I have eaten Chinese food a few times already.
4. PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE: In this type of tense, the action has started taking place beforehand and is still ongoing.
Example: I have been sleeping.
I have been eating a lot of vegetables lately.
PAST TENSES
1. SIMPLE PAST TENSE: In this type of tense the action which is mentioned has already taken place in the past, there is no continuity.
Example: I got some sleep yesterday.
2. PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE: This type of tense describes an on-going action that took place in the past.
Example: I was having lunch when u called yesterday.
3. PAST PERFECT TENSE: This type of tense describes a completed action which took place in the past.
Examples: I had slept.
I had already eaten when my doorbell rang.
4. PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE: This type of tense describes an action which started in the past and continued until another point in time, still in the past.
Example: I had been sleeping for two hours before my friend arrived.
FUTURE TENSES
1. SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE: This type of tense describes an action taking place in the future; there is no mention of its continuity.
Example: I will sleep.
I shall finish my project by tomorrow morning.
2. FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE: This type of tense describes an action that will take place in the future but will still be ongoing.
Example: I will be sleeping at 11 p.m.
I’ll be staying at my parents’ house for a few weeks.
3. FUTURE PERFECT TENSE: This type of tense describes an action that will occur in the future before another action in the future.
Example: I will have slept before you arrive.
4. FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE: This type of tense describes an on-going action in the future before a completed action in a specific point in time.
Example: I will have been sleeping for seven hours by 9 a.m. Tomorrow morning.
I will have been studying for two hours by the time my parents arrive.
Below are some basic rules regarding the sequencing of tenses:
Rule 1
A past tense in the independent clause is always followed by a past tense in the subordinate clause.
Example: I found out that she was out of town.
However, there is an exception to this rule. When the independent clause in the past tense, the subordinate clause can be in the present tense if a universal truth is being stated by it.
Example: The children were taught that honesty is the best policy.
Another exception to this rule is when the word ‘than’ is used in the sentence to introduce the subordinate clause. In this case, the subordinate clause can be used in any tense irrespective of the tense of the independent clause.
Rule 2
If the tense used with the independent clause is in the present or future tense, the tense of the subordinate clause can be in any tense based on what needs to be conveyed.
Example: She is saying that she is alright. She says she is fine.
Rule 3
If the independent clause is in the future tense, the subordinate clause is not used in the future tense instead a subordinating clause beginning with when, until, before, after etc. is used.
Example: I will call you when dinner is ready. I shall wait until you return.
Rule 4
When the subordinate clause is introduced with the conjunction ‘that’, the following rules must be followed,
- ‘May’ should be used in the subordinate clause when the independent clause is in the present tense.
- ‘Might’ should be used in the subordinate clause when the independent clause is in the past tense.
Example: We eat that we may live. She tried to live so that he might have a chance at life.
Rule 5
When some phrases such as If only, wish that, what if, it is time are used, the clauses that follow it are always in the past tense.
Example: I wish I could eat another ice cream.
Voices
Voice:
Voice is the form of the verb takes to point out whether the subject of the verb does or receives the action.
Active voice:
A verb that conveys the action done by the subject is said to be in the active voice.
Jack reads the newspaper.
Mary reads a book.
Passive Voice:
A verb that conveys what is done to subject is said to be in the passive voice. The subject becomes the passive receiver of the action.
The newspaper is read by Jack.
A book is read by Mary.
The Rules to Change the sentences from Active to Passive Form
1. The sentence should have objects (transitive verb). If there is no object then there should be question word who asks the object.
2. Object of active sentence became the subject of passive sentences.
3. Subject of active sentences into passive sentences that preceded the object word "By".
4. The verb used is verb III (past participle) which proceeded by to be.
5. The adjusted sentence construction by tenses.
Fundamental Rules:
1. The position of subject and object are interchanged, object moves to the place of subject and subject moves to the place of object in passive voice.
Example:
• Active voice: I draw a picture
• Passive voice: A picture was drawn by me.
2. Sometimes subjects of sentence are not used in passive voice. Subject of sentence will not be there in passive voice, if exclusive of subject it can give adequate meaning in passive voice.
Example: Passive voice: vegetables are sold very reasonably.
3. Verb III (past participle) is always used as main verb in sentences of passive voice
For all tenses. Present participle or Base form of verb will be never used in passive voice.
Example:
• Active voice: He composed a song.
• Passive voice: A song is composed by him.
4. The word "by" is not always used, the words "with, to, etc" may also be used before subject in passive voice sometimes.
Examples:
Active voice: The water fills the tub.
Passive voice: The tub is filled with water.
Active voice: He knows me.
Passive voice: I am known to him.
Only transitive verbs (verbs which take a direct object) can be made passive.
If you are not sure if a verb is transitive or intransitive in English, try using an object after it.
Transitive Verb Usage
Robin started the project
Subject Verb Object
What did Robin start?
Answer: The project
The verb 'start' can take an object, the project so it is transitive.
Intransitive Verb Usage
Robin laughed
Subject Verb Object
What did Robin laugh?
Answer: Nothing. You cannot laugh something.
The verb 'laugh' cannot take an object, so it is intransitive
Active and Passive Voice for All Tenses
Learn passive vs active voice for different tenses in English, please note that:
V1: Base Form of Verb
V2: Past Simple
V3: Past Participle
Present Simple Tense
Active Voice:
Subject + Verb1
Passive voice:
Subject + am/ is/ are + Verb3
Example:
I prepared a tea. (Active)
A tea is prepared by me. (Passive)
Present Continuous Tense
Active voice:
Subject + am/is/are + Verb-ing
Passive voice:
Subject + am/ is/ are + being + Verb3
Example:
They are playing a game. (Active)
A game is being played by them. (Passive)
Present Perfect Tense
Active voice:
Subject + have/ has + Verb3
Passive voice:
Subject + have/ has + been + Verb3
Example:
She has eaten my burger. (Active)
My burger has been eaten by her. (Passive)
Present Perfect Continuous:
Active Voice:
Subject + have/ has + been + Verb-ing
Passive voice: ---------
Subject + have/ has + been + being + Verb3
Example:
Lisa has not been learning Science. (Active)
Future Tense:
Active voice:
Subject + will/ shall + Verb1
Passive voice:
Subject + will be + Verb3
Example:
My father will take us to the film theatre. (Active)
We will be taken to the film theatre by our father. (Passive)
Future Continuous Tense:
Active Voice:
Subject + will/ shall + be + Verb-ing
The Passive: -----------------
Example:
The teacher will be taking care of the students at this time tomorrow. (Active)
Future Perfect Tense:
Active voice:
Subject + will + have + Verb3
Passive voice:
Subject + will have been + Verb3
Example:
I will have finished my project by the end of this month. (Active)
My project will have been finished by me by the end of this month. (Passive)
Future Perfect Continuous:
Active voice:
Subject + will + have + been + Verb-ing
The Passive: ----------------
Example:
She will have been teaching History for 5 years by next week. (Active)
Past Simple Tense:
Active voice:
Subject + Verb2
Passive voice:
Subject + was/ were + Verb3
Example:
I visited my aunt last year. (Active)
My aunt was visited by me last year. (Passive)
Past Continuous Tense:
Active voice:
Subject + was/ were + Verb-ing
Passive voice:
Subject + was/ were + being + Verb3
Example:
Cris was informing the news to the department. (Active)
The news was being informed to the department by Cris. (Passive)
Past Perfect Tense:
Active voice:
Subject + had + Verb3
The Passive:
Subject + had been + Verb3
Example:
Sam had read the book before Paul came. (Active)
The book had been read by Sam before Paul came. (Passive)
Past Perfect Continuous Tense:
Active voice:
Subject + had + been + Verb-ing
Passive voice: -----------------------
Example:
They had been typing the Question paper for 3 hours before she came yesterday. (Active)
Future in the Past (Would)
Active voice:
S + would + V1
The Passive:
S + would + be + V3
Example:
She would complete the lesson. (Active)
The lesson would be completed by her. (Passive)
Causative Form
Active voice:
Subject + have/ has somebody + Verb1 + something
Subject + get(s) somebody + to + Verb1 + something
Passive voice:
Subject + have/ has/ get(s) something + Verb3 + (by + someone).
Example:
My mother had Milan wash his car. (Active)
My mother had his car washed by Milan. (Passive)
Modal Verbs (Present)
Active voice:
Subject + modal verb + Verb1
The Passive:
Subject + modal verb+ be + Verb3
Example:
We can resolve the difficulty. (Active)
The difficulty can be resolved. (Passive)
Modal Verbs (Present Perfect)
Active voice:
Subject + modal verb + have + Verb3
The Passive:
Subject + modal verb + have + been + Verb3
Example:
The tiger might have killed her. (Active)
She might have been killed by the tiger. (Passive)
Narration
Narrative writing is far more complex that simple descriptive writing.
While a poem for example may describe a scene or even events or people – generally you do not get into the deep inner thoughts of the characters or even get a full story with a clear middle, beginning, and end complete with conflict and dialogue.
Nearly all fiction novels fall into the case of narrative writing, as well as longer epic poems and sagas.
In narrative writing, there is a story to be told – a clear plot complete with setting, characters, dialogue, conflict and resolution. A narrative piece often has a timeline or sequence of events which further build to the point of conflict and resolution.
Here are some examples of the works which would be considered to have a narrative writing style:
- Fiction Novels
- Memoirs & Biographies
- Screenplays
- Epic Poems
- Sagas
- Myths, Legends, and Fables
- Historical accounts
- Essays which talk about a lesson learned or valuable insight from an experience
Narrative writing pieces are generally easy to identify, although sometimes it can be confused with descriptive writing styles. The key difference in determining which one a written work might be is whether or not there is a developed storyline or plot. If there is a well-developed plot and storyline, you are most likely reading narrative writing.
Narrative writing style:
In narrative writing style, your goal is to convey a storyline to your readers.
Here is how to achieve this type of writing style:
- Outline a storyline, plot or timeline sequence of events
- Include detailed descriptions of your characters and scenes
- Give your readers insight into the inner thoughts or behind-the-scenes information to elements of your story
- Answer the 6 W questions in your writing: Who, What, When, Where, How, and Why?
- Make it so your piece of work conveys an important lesson or insight – what is the moral of the story? What was the outcome of this experience?
- Use concrete language which gives readers a specific image to visualize and relate to
PLANNING
Planning is essential to:
- Organize your ideas.
- Organize your flow of ideas into your own writing.
- Identify what research needs to be done.
How do you plan?
- Can you remember the map automatically?
- Can you start drawing spider-grams or mind maps?
- Can you start listing and organizing ideas in straight notes?
- Can you draw a flow chart?
- Can you write sticky notes or index cards?
- Can you combine multiple editing methods?
Plan Visually
- Draw pictures; make charts; create spider-spiders that show a complex web of ideas.
- Plan in an ordered and linear way.
- Organize ideas with straight, logical and clear lines placed on paper or on a computer screen.
- Notes and ideas in small pieces of paper; move them around to find the best sequence.
Structure
• Begin your planning from the process step. For example: compare, explain, explain.
• The words of the process tell you the structure needed for your story.
• Build your plans around the structure of a site using spider-gr, direct notes, sticky notes
- Map direction
Find everything you know about the question at the bottom of the page. This is a test to work out what information you already have and what you need to get.
Spend two minutes documenting everything you've done since getting out of bed this morning in as much detail as possible, without having to figure out what the things are coming out of your head.
- Do ideas come in sequence, from beginning to end?
- Did the ideas come up randomly?
- Does everything you write now make sense to you or does some of the writing seem silly or meaningless?
- Now group ideas and get rid of junk.
Ii. Using Drawings: Spider-grams or mind maps
- Large heading to centre of image.
- Branches, or legs, go to the articles that need to be inserted.
- All ideas related to each topic are drawn internally
- Each of the branches is a separate section or section of the article.
Iii. Flow charts
The flow chart below shows how thoughts follow each other. This is straight forward, in a set of straightforward ideas.
In Pre-writing, first we have to analyse the question, then we have to brainstorm it and plan it and research it , then draft it after that edit/ revise it and again draft it, at last a final draft gets ready.
Iv. Formulating Lists:
Linear notes: Ideas are presented in logical order under headings.
v. Sticky notes
The advantage of sticky notes is that you can move papers around. Group ideas into different ways and explore how different ideas interact with the structure of the text.
Clauses and Their Use in Sentences
Adjective Clause
As the name suggests, it is a clause that acts as an adjective. These are always dependent. They can't stand on their own as sentences but are instead attached to independent clauses in order to modify nouns.
Take a complex sentence such as "The table that we bought last week is already broken." Here, the clause that we bought last week is an adjective clause that modifies table.
Adjective questions
How can you tell if a clause is an adjective one? It's pretty simple: once you have identified a dependent clause, try to identify the noun it's modifying. Adjective clauses can tell one of several things about that noun:
- What kind?
- How many?
- Which one?
Let us look at the previous example!
- The table that we bought last week is already broken.
In this particular sentence, "that we bought last week" is answering the question "which one?" by telling us which table we're talking about.
Here are a few examples where adjective clauses are in bold and the modified noun - in italics to tell you more about the topic.
- The student who gets the highest grade will receive a prize. (Which one?)
- She gave her extra ticket to the girl whose ticket never arrived. (Which one?)
- They drove by the house where he lives. (Which one?)
- We need to find a car that gets better gas mileage. (What kind?)
- This necklace, which is one of my favourites, will look great with that dress. (What kind?)
- All the cookies that we have are stale. (How many?)
Adjective clause signifiers
You'll notice that all these phrases start with the same few words. These fall into one of two groups: relative pronoun and relative adjective. Looking for these words in sentences can help you locate the needed clauses.
- Relative pronouns: who, whom, whose, that, which.
- Relative adverbs: when, where, why.
- Punctuating adjective clauses
You may also have noticed that in some examples above the adjective clause is set off by commas. How can you tell if it needs to be punctuated or if it can be left alone? The key is to look at what role the clause plays in the sentence. If it's necessary - that is, if the sentence doesn't make sense without it - then you don't need to use commas. By removing the adjective clause from the first example above, we lose a necessary piece of information that changes the meaning of the sentence:
- The student who gets the highest grade will receive a prize. - The student will receive a prize.
On the other hand, when we remove the adjective clause here, the main idea of the sentence remains intact:
- This necklace, which is one of my favourites, will look great with that dress. - This necklace will look great with that dress.
When the adjective clause isn't necessary to the sentence, it should be set apart by commas.
Generally, if the adjective clause is needed to clear up any ambiguity about which noun is being talked about. I.e., we need it in order to know which student will receive the prize - so it's essential. If we already know which specific noun we're talking about (i.e., this necklace), the adjective clause is just adding more information. Meaning it is not essential to the sentence. Often, this distinction is unclear. But, you could make a case either way, so don't worry too much if you have trouble identifying essential and inessential clauses.
Nominal or Noun Clauses
At this point, you can probably guess that a noun clause is a clause that acts as a noun.
Also called nominal clauses, these dependent clauses can function in a sentence just like any other noun. They can be a subject, subject complement, direct object, indirect object, the object of a preposition, or an appositive. I.e., "Why you ate all that cake is a mystery to me." Here, the clause why you ate all that cake is acting as a noun and is the subject of the sentence.
Because nominal clauses act like nouns, there's no set of particular questions they answer, since they're not modifying any other words in the sentence. Below are some examples with the nominal clauses in italics and the function of the noun in parentheses.
- Where you want to go is up to you. (subject)
- Whether you open the present now or later depends on when your parents get here. (subject)
- Your art project can be whatever you want. (subject complement)
- Give the ball to whomever asks for it first. (indirect object)
- Hand whatever papers you have over to the teacher. (direct object)
Noun clause signifiers
Noun clauses start with interrogatives (words that ask questions) or expletives (words that explain relationships).
Interrogatives: who, whom, what, which, why, when, where, whoever, whomever, whatever.
Expletives: that, whether, if.
Adverb Clauses
A close cousin of the adjective clause, the adverbial one, functions in much the same way, except it modifies nouns or adjectives. In the sentence, "I'll be working until we finish the project," the clause until we finish the project is an adverbial clause that modifies the verb phrase be working.
Adverb questions
Adverbial clauses can be identified by several specific questions they answer. They will tell you one of a few things about the verb of the main sentence:
- How?
- When?
- Why?
- Where?
- To what degree?
In the above example - I'll be working until we finish the project - the phrase until we finish the project tells us when we'll be working. Here are a few more examples with the adverbial phrase in bold and the word being modified in italics:
- My sister will come to the party even if she's tired. (How?)
- I'll wash the dishes after I eat dinner. (When?)
- She scrubbed the floor until it was spotless. (When?)
- Because you got here late, you'll need to fill out these forms. (Why?)
- Rather than buying a new car, she chose to have her old one fixed. (Why?)
- Wherever you go, I'll find you. (Where?)
- Alex will enjoy the movie more than his sister will. (To what degree?)
- The hostess wouldn't seat us because the restaurant was closed. (Why?)
- The seeds will take root wherever there is enough light. (Where?)
Adverbial clause signifiers
Adverbial phrases start with subordinate conjunctions. Those are words that join together an independent and dependent clause while indicating which is the subordinate (or secondary) clause.
Subordinate conjunctions:
- After
- Although
- As
- Because
- Before
- Even if
- Even
- Though
- If
- In order
- That
- Once
- Provided
- That
- Rather
- Than
- Since
- So that
- Then
- Though
- Unless
- Until
- When
- Whenever
- Where
- Whereas
- Wherever
- Whether
- While
- Why
Punctuating adverbial clauses
Like adjective clauses, adverbial ones are sometimes set off by commas. However, in this case, it's their placement in the sentence that determines how they're punctuated. Clauses that begin the sentence should be separated from the main clause with a comma. Those added at the end of the main clause do not need one:
- Rather than buying a new car, she chose to have her old one fixed.
- She chose to have her old car fixed rather than buying a new one.
Use of Phrases
Phrases are combinations of two or more words that form the component of a clause. They are meaningful grammatical constructions that expresses a concept and can be used within a sentence.
There are 5 basic types of phrases in the English language:
- Noun Phrase:
A noun phrase is a type of phrase which consists of one noun and/or a group of words surrounding that noun. These nouns can be proper nouns, common nouns, abstract nouns etc.
Examples: There is a red box on the table.
I saw two lost puppies on the street yesterday.
He bought a new sports car on his birthday.
2. Verb Phrase:
A verb phrase is a type of phrase which consists of a root verb and its auxiliaries. It is also known as a ‘verb group’.
Examples: They have been working since last night.
I have been waiting for the rain to stop for nearly an hour.
Jack lost the keys to his apartment when he was jogging.
3. Adjective Phrase:
Adjective phrases are phrases constructed around a single adjective. It may be a single adjective or a group of words surrounding that adjective.
Examples: The film was very boring, wasn’t it?
I ate a very big meal for lunch.
The blue umbrella stood out in a crowd of all red umbrellas.
4. Adverb phrase:
Adverb phrases consist of a single adverb and a group of supporting words surrounding that adverb.
Examples: They finished the task as fast as possible.
Please do it now, otherwise you’ll regret later.
He spoke very softly in front of his parents.
5. Prepositional phrase:
A prepositional phrase is a type of phrase which consists of a preposition which is followed by its object which is usually a noun phrase.
Examples: They kept quarreling over money of all things.
The coin was stuck inside a large black futon.
You shouldn’t go swimming after having a large meal.
Marks of punctuation play an extremely significant role in giving proper meaning to the language. Use of incorrect mark of punctuation or even wrong position of mark of punctuation can change the meaning of the sentence totally and sometimes even change the sentence to absolute nonsense.
Punctuation is essential for the following reasons:
- Punctuation separates sentences.
- Punctuation shows us when to pause.
- Punctuation shows us where to place emphasis.
- Punctuation clarifies the meaning of the sentence.
Ambiguous, unpunctuated sentences can change the meaning and confuse the reader.
The comma is considered a real villain among marks of punctuation. Incorrect position of comma can give different meaning to sentence depending upon where it is positioned.
Let us see the following sentences:
- Let us eat, daddy.
- Let us eat daddy.
In the primary sentence daddy is being called for dinner. On the other hand, in the next sentence, daddy himself has become a thing to be eaten. Slip of comma in this case has changed the primary sentence to absolute non-sense.
- Hang him, not let him free
- Hang him not, let him free.
In above sentences, just changing comma by one place has entirely misrepresented the meaning of the sentence.
In 1872, incorrect placement of comma cost millions of dollars in import duties to US government. In a tariff act approved in 1872, list of duty-free items added: “Fruit plants, tropical & semi tropical.”
A government officer put the mark of comma at wrong place, which made the sentence read: “Fruit, plants tropical & semi tropical.”
Importers productively contested in the courts that the course as written meant that all tropical & semitropical plants were free from expense of duty.
Next pairs of can also encourage anybody on the subject of right use of marks of punctuation sentences:
- The murderer protested his innocence an hour after he was hanged.
- The murderer protested his innocence. An hour after, he was hanged.
The primary sentence without comma is an absolute nonsense. It means that the murderer protested his innocence after he was hanged!
- Private- No swimming allowed.
- Private? No. Swimming allowed.
In the second sentence, addition of a question mark and full stop has transformed personal possessions to public possessions.
- I am sorry you cannot come with us.
- I am sorry. You cannot come with us.
- The butler stood by the door & called the guests’ names.
- The butler stood by the door & called the guests names.
- The criminal, says the judge, should be hanged.
- The criminal says, the judge should be hanged.
Changing the comma by just one place has entirely misrepresented the meaning of the sentence. In the next sentence, it is not the criminal but the judge who should be hanged.
& finally
- The inspector said, “The teacher is a fool.”
- “The inspector,” said the teacher “is a fool.” (Here the inspector is called a fool)
The above given sentences are to show the significance of use of not only correct mark of punctuation, but their right position also.
Have you ever read something that was difficult to follow, where the author jumped from one idea to another and had no coherence or consistency in connecting words, sentences and paragraphs? That is something you want to avoid in your writing. But how do you do that?
Coherence writing is a logical bridge between words, sentences, and paragraphs. Comprehensive writing uses devices to link ideas within each sentence and paragraph. Key ideas and description can be difficult for the reader to follow when writing is not in line. In this tutorial, you will see some examples and read some tips for making your writing more consistent between words, phrases and paragraphs.
Coherence Between Words:
Between each word, an overlap can be created in parallel. Syntactic structure means using the same grammatical structure between words and sentences. Similarities are very important for words in lists. If you make a list of things that a person likes to do, then each employee on the list should take the same kind of language. For example, if one of the actions in the list takes the 'gaming' form of gerund, the same as 'running', the other items in the list should be in the gerund form.
An informal structure will:
Sara loves jumping, running, and boating.
Instead, the list should be like this:
Sarah loves to jump, run, and walk.
Coherence between Sentences:
Cohesion can be formed between sentences by using replication and transition devices. The repetition of words in every sentence helps to repeat the same thoughts between sentences. One way to use repetition to build consensus is to combine the repetition of the same word or phrase at the end of one sentence and at the end of the next sentence to show how thoughts come together. Here is an example of phrases that create reciprocal harmony:
The most important part of the essay is the thesis statement. The thesis statement introduces the contention of the text. Thesis statement also helps to shape the context.
In this example, the repetition of the word 'thesis statement' helps to combine the three sentences. It is a sentence that completes the first sentence and shifts to the next sentence starting with that sentence.
Another way to build consistency between sentences is transformational devices. There are many types of converging devices that show time and help ideas flow smoothly. Change words, such as 'first', 'later', and 'then', are just a few examples of interchange devices that show time to help ideas flow smoothly. Swap devices are like display signs that tell the reader what happened before and where the conversation is going.
Coherence Between Categories:
Temporary words can also be used between paragraphs. Words such as:
- Therefore
- However
- Thus
- First
- Later
- After that
It can be used not only between sentences, but between paragraphs to connect them. Other ways to build consistency between categories include paragraph structure and visual consistency. The structure of a related paragraph includes a topic sentence, which focuses on the main idea. The topic sentence usually comes first in the paragraph. The topic sentence is followed by supporting sentences that develop the idea and finally the concluding sentence to put it all together. Temporary words then close the gap between paragraphs, and then the structure begins with another topic sentence in the next paragraph.
Establishing Associations
It is important to consider the conjunction when writing at the sentence level. However, cohesion shapes the flow of text and must be established.
There are various ways to ensure consistent cohesion:
- Write sentences that flow with varying lengths and structures, use punctuation, and extend your choice of words.
- Use simple modifications, such as "in addition, additionally, and, therefore, the opposite, in the same token, at the same time, in other words, etc."
- Repeat your keywords but beware of excessive repetition.
- Repeat sentence structures, used as a means of livelihood rather than unity to emphasize the similarities between sentences.
- Ensure consistency regarding them
- Begin each sentence or paragraph with information showing the content of the next sentence.
Academic writing is improved in terms of cohesion. Without unity and cohesion, students will become confused and ultimately disinterested in the subject. Your ideas are then lost and the original purpose of writing is lost.
Strategies for coherent writing:
There are six ways to make a cohesive encounter, which you will find useful while researching your manuscript.
Building relationships is not as difficult as it seems, but you will need the right tools and strategies to achieve it.
Lexis creates cohesion using text templates, hyponyms, and superordinates. The use of lexical chains creates variety in writing and avoids monotony.
- The index creates combinations by using noun phrases (e.g. Yours, theirs, etc.), pronouns (e.g. He, I, etc.), and commentators (e.g. Those, these, etc.).
- Submission, which is to use a different name instead of the previously mentioned name (e.g. "I bought a designer bag today. You did the same.")
- Ellipsis removal or omission because its meaning is defined in context (e.g. "You go to yoga classes in the afternoon. I hope I can too.")
- Related nouns are also called umbrella nouns because they summarize many words in one.
- Suffixes include words that write ideas (e.g. First, next, then, last, etc.)
By the term 'text' we refer to a passage consisting of different sentences written in continuous prose. It could be just a paragraph. When we read the paragraph, we can understand what is said and we can be able to follow the thinking of the writer. If we are not able to follow we can say that the concerned paragraph lacks cohesion and coherence.
Precise writing promotes two types of skills namely discourse skill and coherence.
It is a skill of presenting ideas and arguments of the writer logically. If this skill is developed we come to know what is coherence and cohesion. Every line has a logical link with the previous one in the text or paragraph which is called the link between sentences in a paragraph. They are:
i) topical
Ii) grammatical
Iii) logical.
This type of link or inter connectedness is known as cohesion. Topical cohesion is lexical in nature. Logical cohesion is known as coherence.
i) Topical cohesion
In a text only one topic is dealt with. It has collocation of related make use of words. Whenever we are writing on a particular topic we appropriate register. So register is the term used to denote the variety of language which depends on its particular use. But using proper register is a hall mark of advanced mastery of the language. Hence it is sufficient to learn collocation rather than register. Topically connected words and its repetition is seen in the text. Synonyms are freely used.
Ii) Grammatical cohesion:
Here sentences can be interconnected by grammar. Grammatical relationship can be brought about by the use of pronouns appositives etc.
Iii) Logical cohesion or Coherence:
A sentence in a text should be logically connected. Logical cohesive is achieved by the use of certain words and expressions. There are a about a dozen logical devices used to promote cohesion.
- Addition: We add one sentence to another by using linguistic markers like and, besides, in addition, moreover, further, again etc.
e.g: He has a car. In addition, he owns a bike
- Amplification: Amplification means adding details to the text. It is more or less like addition. The same linguistic markers are used here also.
e.g: He came to see me moreover he brought good news.
- Comparison: Here the first sentence states something. Similar idea is expressed in the second sentence. Markers used are similarly and likewise.
e.g: Rama got his degree. Similarly, Gopal also got his degree
- Contrast: The second sentence strikes a contrast with the first sentence making use of linguistic markers like 'but, however, whereas, etc.
e.g: He is poor but he is kind.
- Concession: The second sentence makes a concession on the basis of the sentence. The linguistic markers used are through, although, even though.
e.g: He is poor. Though he is poor he is kind.
- Condition: The second sentence puts forth a condition-based idea with reference he first sentence if, unless, as long as are used.
e. g: If you work hard, you will pass.
- Cause and effect: The first sentence states the cause or reason. The second sentence covers the effect of that cause. As a result, therefore are used as refers to the linguistic markers.
e.g: He is suffering from fever. Therefore, he has not come to school.
- Enumeration: The sentence making, use of this device draw up a list. The markers used are 'first, to begin, finally' etc.
e.g: He was persistently asking me for a loan. Finally, he went away.
- Exemplification: The second sentence gives an example for what is stated in the first sentence. The linguistic markers used are for example, for instance, etc.
e.g: The government has implemented a number of good schemes.
For example adult education has been given great importance.
- Temporal Relationship: The second sentence refers to a time factor connected to the first sentence. 'before, after, during, meanwhile etc. are used.
e.g: We were discussing the problem.
Meanwhile the problem has worsened.
- Conclusion: The second sentence arises at a conclusion based on the idea expressed in the first sentence. The markers used are" to conclude, to sum up, in brief etc.
e.g: He has no clear alibi, to conclude he is the culprit.
- Reformulation: The second sentence 'remarks the first sentence. The markers used are in the other words, he is dishonest etc.
Below are the three stages of precise writing:
1. Planning
Planning is the "generating ideas" part of the writing process when one works to determine the topic and the position or point-of-view for a target audience. Planning should be offered with the time necessary for an individual to create a plan or develop an outline to organize materials for the final product.
Planning Methods/ Techniques for the Planning Stage
There are a number of ways that one can tackle the planning stage of the writing process. Following are a few of the most common methods and strategies that one can use.
Brainstorming - Brainstorming is the process of coming up with as many ideas as possible about a topic without being worried about the feasibility or whether an idea is realistic or not. A list format is often the easiest to organize.
Freewriting - The free write strategy is when one writes whatever comes into their mind about the topic at hand for a specific amount of time, like 10 or 15 minutes. In a free write, one should not worry about grammar, punctuation, or spelling. Instead, they should try and come up with as many ideas as they possibly can to help them when they get to the writing process.
Mind Maps - Concept maps or mind-mapping are great strategies to use during the planning stage. Both are visual ways to outline information. There are many varieties of mind maps that can be quite useful as one work in the planning stage. Webbing is a great tool that has one write a word in the middle of a sheet of paper. Related words or phrases are then connected by lines to this original word in the centre. They build on the idea so that one has a wealth of ideas that are connected to this central idea.
Drawing/Doodling – Some individuals respond well to the idea of being able to combine words with drawings as they think about what they want to write in the planning stage. This can open up creative lines of thought.
Asking Questions - One often comes up with more creative ideas through the use of questioning. The point of asking questions to oneself is that these questions can help uncover a deeper understanding of the topic before the drafting process begins.
Outlining - One can employ traditional outlines to help them organize their thoughts in a logical manner. One would start with the overall topic and then list out their ideas with supporting details. It is helpful to point out that the more detailed their outline is from the beginning, the easier it will be to write on the topic.
2. Drafting
Drafting is the second step in any writing process. While drafting, the writer organizes his ideas into complete thoughts and translates them into sentences and paragraphs. The writer organizes his ideas in a way that allows the reader to understand his message. He does this by focusing on which ideas or topics to include in the piece of writing.
While drafting, the writer must compose an introduction to the piece and develop a conclusion for the material presented. At the end of this step of the writing process, the writer will have completed a “rough draft.” or the First draft of the text.
Below is the drafting process in detail:
Drafting: Stage 1
Follow your plan
Write your first draft using the plan and argument you have already prepared. If you stick to your plan, your first draft should be quite quick to write.
If new ideas occur to you, make notes in a separate document and insert them later, making sure they fit with your plan.
One point per paragraph
Focus on making sure each paragraph contains a point that elaborates on a different aspect of your argument. You will usually make your point in the first sentence of a paragraph. This is often called the topic sentence.
Signposting
As you draft, you might like to include section headings to help keep you on track. You can take them out later. Provide your reader with signposts so they can follow your line of argument without the headings.
At the end of a paragraph, indicate how your point leads on to the next one. Alternatively, use the first few words of the new paragraph to show how it links to the previous one.
Drafting: Stage 2
Check your argument
Now, check what you've written: your argument and how it is structured. Have you answered the question, and all parts of the question? Are the main points clear?
Check that your sections are in the best order for the argument to flow well. You can read through your topic sentences to see this.
You may need to expand one area and reduce another, and substitute quotes or references. But make sure you stick to roughly the right word count.
Keep track of changes by renaming your document as Draft 2. You could put the parts you take out in a ‘spare text' document in case you realise later that you need any of them.
Introduction and conclusion
Once you are happy with the main body of the text, check that your introduction and conclusion reflect what you have written.
3. Editing
Editing is generally considered as correcting grammar and syntax along with punctuation. That's somewhat correct, but only the tip of the iceberg. The editing process involves many sets of eyes and several layers to complete.
It’s important to understand the different types of editing to know what to expect from the process. The revision levels focus on specific individual needs, including stylistic and substantive content. The process of editing consists of four main steps which are to be covered: content and development, line, copy, and proofread.
Steps for Editing:
Step 1: Content and Development Edit
The first step of editing for most documents is content and development editing—reviewing the central content of the text. Developmental editing tackles the following:
- Flow
- Organization
- Chapter (arrangement, length, and number)
- Logic
- Descriptions
- Sentence Structures
- Pacing
- Impact of POV (first, second, third, or combination)
Content and development edits will often lead to reorganization of thought patterns in the text with changing or shuffling minor ideas due to incoherencies.
Step 2: Line Edit
Line edits focus primarily structural patterns of sentences and paragraphs with special attention towards:
- Words or phrases that are repetitious
- Restructuring sentences that are not complete or inaccurate
- Run-on sentences
- Usage of words that clarify meaning
- Enhances tedious wording
A line edit restructures sentences to elevate clarity and flow. Say there are two sentences describing something important, but they don’t quite pull together. During this step, the editor will take the two sentences and formulate them in such a way that they read effortlessly and are in a logical order.
Step 3: Copy Edit
Copy editing is focused on specific grammatical rules including but not limited to:
- Grammar and punctuation
- Spelling nuances (British English versus American English)
- Capitalizing, hyphenating, italicizing
- When to use numbers instead of letters
The copy edit can and must be automated using rules. While editing it is prudent to use two to three references to maintain consistency—specifically, a dictionary and a style manual. Use of dictionaries should be selective to ensure spelling and meaning is correct. Merriam-Webster dictionary is most common.
Step 4: Proofread
The proofread is the final and one of the most important aspects of editing. Proofreading is the last stage of editing and the proof-reader carefully looks for:
- Spelling errors
- Words that sound the same but spelled differently
- Correct usage of quotation and punctuation marks around
- Dialogue
- Missed words (of, and, the)
- Unwanted spaces
Technically proofreading is often considered outside the realm of general editing. An In-depth account of content and flow should be assured before a proofread. While proofreading one isn’t expected to criticize or provide an exhaustive review.
