Unit 4

Listening

4.1   Listening: Identifying Key Terms and Concepts

It is possible to listen to a speaker without comprehending what he or she is saying. There is a major difference between listening and hearing and the way you listen to a concert for enjoyment and appreciation is not the same mode of listening you’d find most effective if you’re trying to understand and absorb the material being presented. Thus, in academic or formal contexts it is essential to actively listen to what is being said by the speaker to completely understand the intended meaning of the speaker. For this purpose, one needs to know how to listen and identify key terms and main concepts as well as the ideas encapsulating those key terms

In Essential Study Skills, Eighth Edition, Linda Wong encourages listeners to listen for six kinds of information as they pay attention to different verbal and non-verbal cues in order to identify key terms and concepts. These include:

1. Key or “Signal” Words: There are various keywords to look out for while actively listening to a speaker, they include words such as “causes,” “purposes,” “effects,” “ways,” “advantages,” “characteristics,” and “types” can be used as “headings” to indicate that the speaker is introducing a major portion of the lecture. For instance, “Now, I am going to discuss the six advantages of listening…”).

2. Main Concepts: The main concepts incorporated in a text by a speaker are often represented by topic sentences that indicate the main points or ideas that the speaker is trying to convey. “First…” “Second…” “Third…” and “Finally…”. Are typically the words employed to indicate these concepts so one must always be on the lookout for them.

3. Definitions and Key Terms. If the speaker is taking the time to define a term, it is most often a critical key term or concept that is extremely essential for comprehending the subject by the listener. If the speaker uses words such as “[the term] means…” or “[term], also known as…”, that implies a definition will follow which must be payed focused attention.

4. Supporting Details. Examples, dates, statistics, anecdotes and other details illustrate the key points, provide supporting evidence for the topic under discussion, and help clarify your understanding.

5. The Speaker’s Verbal Cues. Most speaker will use specific keywords to indicate crucial concepts. It may also be noticeable that a speaker becomes more enthusiastic at a certain point while they are speaking, or that he or she emphasizes key points with a louder voice, deeper tone, or particular gestures. The more familiar you become with the style and tone of the speaker, the more you'll be able to ascertain his or her method of confirming that a particular point is important. Sometimes speakers even say "This is important" to emphasize a point.

6. Non-Verbal Ques: Most of the communication that takes place between individuals is nonverbal. You can learn a great deal about someone through their body language and tone of voice when they are communicating with you. It is easy to detect boredom, enthusiasm or irritation on someone's face when they talk depending on their eyes, mouth and position of their shoulders. Therefore, listening also includes paying attention to nonverbal cues. It helps you to make inferences based on what a person actually means when they are talking to you.

7. The Conclusion. The speaker will most likely conclude by summarizing the main points that he or she covered that day. It is imperative to capture these points, and write them under the heading “Conclusion” as these will denote the key terms and concepts of the entire discourse.

4.2   Speaking: Formal Oral Presentations on Topics from Academic Contexts – Without PPT

Academic Presentation

An academic presentation is a formal talk given on a specific set of topics to inform and educate. They may be short or long, include slides or other visual aids, and be done individually or in a group.

Planning and structuring a presentation is similar to the process of writing an essay, except the speaker needs to be conscious of a live audience and use spoken language instead of written.

Below are the four basic skills required to create a successful presentation:

Step 1: Planning:

While planning a presentation, the following questions should be kept in mind:

1. What is the aim of your research?
2. Why are you presenting it in oral form?
3. What is important about your findings?
4. What is the key focus of your presentation?
5. To whom are you presenting your findings?
6. Are they more or less knowledgeable on the topic than you?
7. What does your audience expect to gain from listening to you?

The presentation must be planned in such a way that it answers all these questions first before moving on to the structuring stage.

Step 2: Structuring the Presentation:

Like an essay, an presentation needs an introduction, body and a conclusion. The introduction may consist of an anecdote or provocative question to engage the audience right from the start. A question that includes your audience will make them want to follow through with you to find out the implications as they relate to them directly. The body will contain the main theme of the presentation where the ideas introduced earlier are explored thoroughly. The concluding statement should be a clear summary of what has been said in the main part of the presentation. It should also point toward further research or conclusive results if possible.

There are a lot of differences in speech and writing, and they must be kept in mind while preparing a presentation.

One of the most obvious ways in which to achieve natural speech is to speak sometimes in the first person - you can refer to yourself in a presentation, for example, "I'd like to start by..." or "Let me give you an example...", whereas in written projects it is best to keep the use of the first person to a minimum.

While preparing for a presentation, visual aids such as PowerPoint presentations could be very useful to illustrate one’s ideas more clearly. It can be very purposeful to employ such visual aids while discussing the central themes of the topic.

Step 3: Preparation:

Preparedness helps in easing nerves nous and boosts confidence. The following considerations should be kept in mind while preparing for presentations.

Time limits:

The presentation must be practiced a number of times to get the pacing right and to ensure the information can be contained in the time provided. Finishing too early might make the audience think that you lack proper material or understanding of the topic whereas finishing too late might make them feel boredom.

Speak from notes:

It's preferable to reduce the original paper to bullet points while presenting so as to not lose eye contact, intonation and good posture.

Body language:

Use of gestures and good posture combined with a smile keeps the audience engaged and interested.

Voice:

Loudness should be ample so that the audience can hear you clearly and the pace should be perfect so they can follow your arguments. Use silence and pauses effectively when making particular points, also speaking in monotone should be avoided.

Step 4: Presentation:

If all of the previous steps are followed carefully, one should be able to present easily and effectively. Questions should be welcomed and special attention should be given to the audience’s reactions and one’s own body language.

It should always be kept in mind what the purpose of the presentation is and all improvisations should be done in accordance to that purpose. The presentation should be ended with a polite “thank you” and all questions from the audience should be answered as clearly as possible.

Impromptu Presentation

An impromptu presentation is type of speech which you have to give in public without any preparation whatsoever. It is a presentation that one can be asked to provide with no prior notice. It can be one of the most terrifying speeches you’ll ever do; standing up in front of a crowd and having to speak for a few minutes without preparation is daunting even for the most seasons speakers. It’s not likely to happen often, however when it does, you don’t want to be caught completely off-guard.

Here are a few things to bear in mind if you’re asked to speak at short notice.

Make some quick notes

The first thing you should do when asked to speak, is to grab a pen and a piece of paper. Write down a few key words or phrases that can be used as ideas to expand upon during the presentation. If you don’t write anything else, make sure you’ve written down your starting and ending sentences as these are the most important.

Decide on the tone

Next, think about what tone to speak in. This will depend on the type of event you’re at. For example, at a wedding you would speak informally and you can have fun with the speech, whereas at a business conference you would speak more formally and stick to a professional tone.

Impromptu speech frameworks

This is when it gets easy. Below are some frameworks that will serve as structures to your presentation, pick any one of these whichever feels most convenient to you. They’re easy to remember so you won’t have to write them down, and instead can just write down keywords for each point.

1. The 5 Ws

If speaking about a particular person or a specific event, the 5 Ws framework could be helpful.

Following the 5 Ws provides instant structure to your speech and you’ll be able to organise your thoughts in an easy-to-follow way. You don’t even need to change the order - starting with ‘who’ gives context to the speech and ending with ‘why’ leaves the audience with the most important, relatable point.

Who - who is involved in the event or who is attending

What - what event are you at and what are the common goals?

Where - where is the event, how did the initiative the event revolves around start?

When - is the timing of the event important? What does the future hold?

Why - why is everyone there? Why are you there?

For example, if you have to give a presentation on a great scientific discovery, you can elaborate on when it was made, who were the key people involved in it, how has it affected modern life what are its future prospects.

2. Diplomatic framework

This framework is especially useful in formal setting such as business conventions or company meetings.

For this impromptu presentation, start by giving a one or two line introduction of the topic, then talk about the pros and cons of the subject and finally end with an appropriate conclusion. This framework provides you with more material to talk about then the 5 Ws all the while making your content more informative.

Silence is a key feature in this framework which can be used to your advantage. Given that there is less room for creativity, you may find you need to pause to think about what you’re going to say next. The time you spend thinking can be used to make the audience think you are letting your point settle, to do this walk a little on the stage, ask if there are any questions, or ask for a glass of water. These techniques all buy you more time if your mind goes blank and save you (and your audience) from feeling awkward about a prolonged silence.

3. Storytelling

Although this framework is more useful for informal events such as product launches and weddings, it can also be used in formal settings to make a point.

Storytelling is a powerful method of relating with the audience. When having to present when you aren’t prepared, you can start speaking in a story format with a small beginning and a larger than life conclusion. This process basically involves starting a topic from your own perspective and then extending it to global levels.

For example, if you’re asked to give a speech at a wedding, you could start from the time you first met the groom/bride and how they became a couple and your experiences with them (small), what their relationship and marriage means to the other people present and their families (medium), and end with the importance of matrimony and love (Big).

Being able to deliver an impromptu presentation is an important skill to possess and will help you get rid of last-minute panic when you're asked to speak without prior notice. It is essential to practice impromptu speeches on a variety of topics in order to nurture the mind to learn quick thinking and how to organise ideas.

Extempore

Extempore is a type of impromptu speech given without any prior preparation. It is a format of public speaking where the speaker is given a topic and he/she has to speak on that topic there and then with no pre-meditation whatsoever.

In some cases, the speaker is given a few minutes to organize his thoughts before speaking but in most cases the speaker has to speak on the topic as soon as it is allotted to him.

Extempore tests the knowledge of the speaker as well as their ability to express themselves articulately in a limited amount of time.

Extempore tests the following abilities of a speaker:

1. How quickly one can think of relevant information.
2. How one analyses the topic and identifies the issue that is to be addressed.
3. How prudent one is in generating ideas.
4. Logical Thinking – organizing and prioritizing ideas sequentially.
5. Ability to connect with the audience.
6. Speaking communication skills such as choice of words, tone and vocal stops.
7. Presentation skills such as body language, composure, posture, confidence etc.

To be an articulate speaker, one must practice their vocabulary, pronunciation and grammar as much as he can.

Guidelines of practicing extempore speech:

1. Logical Thinking: Organizing and Forming Ideas

Extempore speeches give little to no time to the speaker to prepare, therefore one needs to be fast in forming ideas and thoughts around a given topic. To be good at logical thinking, one should practice writing down about various topics with perfect speed and accuracy.

2.     Keeping The Audience in Mind:

It is necessary to know one’s audience while delivering an extempore speech. The speaker should formulate his thoughts in such a way that his audience understands each and every idea and can relate to them. The language, background, type of setting (formal or informal) all should be kept in mind while speaking.

3.     Being Truthful With The Audience:

If one is asked to give an impromptu speech, he can acknowledge that he has not prepared a speech in advance. This will help relieve tension between the speaker and the audience and create a friendly environment. It should be done in a professional manner not to garner sympathy but to put the audience and oneself at ease.

4.     Practicing for a Minute:

The speaker usually gets a few minutes before presenting which should always be used to practice. When one has finished organising his thoughts, he should practice speaking in a low voice for a minute or two. This will help build confidence and get a grasp on the subject matter.

5.     Hijacking the Topic:

Since the conversation is one-sided during an extempore speech, the speaker is in complete control. It depends on the speaker what path the flow of the speech will take. Keeping this in mind the speaker can relax and speak with confidence.

6.     Introduction, The Main Subject and The Conclusion:

The speech should consist of an introductory sentence which will let the audience know how the rest of the speech will follow. The middle should consist of the main theme of the topic with as many relevant points as possible. The conclusion should summarize all that was spoken before it in a clear and concise manner.

7.     Keeping it Short and Sweet:

Extempore speeches are not expected to be long. The speaker should use this to his advantage and keep the speech short and sweet and to the point. No extraneous digressions must be entertained.

8.     Being Aware of Oneself:

While speaking, one should always be aware of one’s tone, diction and body language. He should also be aware of how the audience is reacting to his speech. One should not say anything that might hurt the audience’s sentiments or make them lose interest.

Extemporaneous Presentation

The extemporaneous presentation is a type of presentation which is prepared, but not memorized. In an extemporaneous presentation, you do not write down

Your whole presentation word for word but instead use bullet points, key words and key phrases to trigger the next thought. . Note cards or sheets of paper encased in plastic covers are the most efficient methods of delivering this presentation.

In this type of presentation, the contact with the audience is the maximum. The content and length of the presentation can be altered even while the presentation is in progress. Even though you are carefully prepared, you should not sound memorized or that you are reading your notes to the audience during an extemporaneous presentation.

Here are some steps you can take to assure you that you are preparing an extemporaneous presentation.

Step 1. The first step is to think about the topic, not writing, just thinking. The topic should be pondered upon and ideas surrounding the topic should be focused on. Writing can be perilous at this point as it will slow down the thinking process.

Step 2. Once you have spent a few hours thinking about the topic, write notes down on paper. The organisation or structure of these thoughts don't matter at this stage. You should write in bullet points instead of complete sentences as it will help you trigger new thoughts instead of formulating a full speech.

Step 3. Now all the ideas and thoughts written down earlier should be organised so as to form a rough outline, again, you should only group together similar thoughts instead of writing a complete speech. Based on this organisation, mark key ideas and jot down supporting ideas for these central ones. Which part would be the best way to start and where are you going to place the strongest argument?

Step 4. After writing down all your thoughts regarding the subject, you are now prepared to practice your speech. Don't think about articulation or organisation of ideas while speaking. Practicing will provide you the best ways to transition between ideas, which words you should use for key concepts and when to use non-verbal cues.

Step 5. Practice aloud in front of friends or family members as they can provide you with appropriate feedback. While practicing use the notes you are going to use in the actual presentation.

Step 6. To increase comfort level and build confidence on the day of the presentation, look through the points you wrote and practice elaborating one of those points, such as one of your stories and the introductory points.

Elocution

An elocution is a manner of delivering formal speech which focuses on the various elements of speaking such as pronunciation, articulation, vocabulary, accent, emphasis, inflections and gestures along with the subject matter of the speech.

Elocution tests the speaking skills of the orator and allows him to understand his faults providing him with room for improvement.

There are 6 key principles of elocution that must be learnt and mastered in order to have clear and precise speech. These principles are:

1. Articulation- This is defined as the ability to put thoughts into effective words, in order to phrase and enunciate words to deliver a proper speech.

2. Inflections- This is the ability to modulate the tone of speech so as to express a grammatical attribute of the word, such as tone, mood, gender etc.

3. Accent and Emphasis- The social surrounding of a speaker greatly influences how they speak. Learning to emphasise on the right syllables in order to pronounce words correctly, greatly improves an individual’s overall communication and understanding skills.

4. The Voice- The effectiveness of speech can be impacted by the tone and pitch of how words are pronounced. Modulating the voice while speaking helps avoid a monotonous tone and greatly improves the impact of the speech.

5. Gesture- The movement of hands, body language, and overall facial features while speaking greatly aid in the effectiveness of speech. Learning to control facial expressions for appropriate situations enables one to become a better, considerate speaker.

6. Instructions for Reading Verse- Effective reading enables one to learn proper stress on words in order to deliver an impactful speech. Phonetics also play a crucial role in helping develop correct speaking skills and reading a passage where one can identify the key areas to make an emphasis on.

Below are some methods by which one can develop and improve their elocution skills:

1. Drink sufficiently - Drinking sufficient amounts of water helps relax the vocal chords which are essential for speaking clearly and concisely

2. Posture - Standing straight with the spinal cord making an angle of 90 degrees with the ground gives your vocal chords more volume when speaking and also a creates a good impression on the listeners.

3. Inhale-Exhale - Inhaling deep breaths and exhaling before speeches calms the mind and allows one you to speak longer sentences without inhaling in between.

4. Lower Register - As the lower registers are more pleasant to the ear, keeping a low register of the tone of your voice will help the audience understand better and will keep them interested.

5. Record the speech - Video recording can be helpful as you can hear the tone of your voice and pronunciation and also can see your posture and body language. Here you can find out where you are going wrong and focus on ways to improve.

6. Speaking slowly - One often tends to forget or fumble while speaking fast. Speaking slowly will allow you to be calm and will give you time to properly pronounce each word making it easy for the audience to understand.

7. Confidence is key - It is extremely essential to be confident while speaking in front of an audience.  If one has stage fright they can practice their speech in front of family and friends to boost confidence.

4.3    Reading: Use of Graphic Elements in Text, Understanding Patterns

Use of Graphic Elements in Text

Graphic texts include printed text and a range of other visual features which may encompass: captions, diagrams, graphs, maps, photographs, tables, etc.

Effective writing in non-fiction, business, industry, and government usually implies effective graphics. In simple terms, graphics refers to any of the texts' non-prose elements, such as tables, charts, pictures, maps, etc. The writer generally has two main purposes of using graphics in texts:

• To make the information in the text stand out
• To make the related information support the main purpose of the text as clearly and strongly as possible.

Graphic Effects

Most writing that contains graphics has two main kinds of material:

1) The main text or prose which forms the written part of the text

2) Graphic material supporting the written text

The text and the graphics assist each other. Ideally, the reader comprehends the writer's ideas and key concepts from the text, and uses graphics for supporting those ideas and opinions. The graphics in turn send the reader back to the main text to acquire more understanding of the text. Therefore, the reader moves back and forth down the passages, first looking at text, and then at graphics. By this process the reader comes to a clear understanding of the main idea from the text and sees support for the main idea in the graphics.

The writer organizes the document in such a way so that the facts in the graphics clearly support the main concepts of the text. This graphic and text relationship also carries the implication that details should appear in a graphic form whenever possible. For concepts that could be represented graphically, the reader should never have to plow through long and dense passages of prose.

Graphic Formats

Many different graphic formats are often accustomed support the text's main ideas. However, the ideal graphic format depends on the kind of information being presented.

Tables

The table presents large amounts of information in a simple, brief, and clear linear format. The same data in prose would be bulky, confusing, and inaccessible. Tables help the reader grasp relationships that may be invisible in prose. Also, tables allow the author to focus attention on specific pieces of information while retaining a transparent presentation of the whole.

Graphs

Basically, the graph could be a two-dimensional field employed to plot the relationships among two interrelated sets of information. The most common kind of graph has the familiar X and Y axes, with data of one sort on the X axis and data of another related sort set on the Y axis. Such a representation allows the reader to ascertain at a glance not just the information, but more important, the connection between the two sets of data. For any value on either axis, the reader can quickly derive the related value or values on the opposite axis.

Charts

While the graph illustrates relationships, the chart illustrates comparisons, usually among several sets of data.

Many other styles of charts are possible, including the pie chart, the pictorial chart, which uses drawings to represent numerical information, and also the map chart, a schematic representation of a geographical area, on which various pictures, drawings, or other devices are superimposed.

Photographs

Photographs are the foremost realistic and dramatic representation of physical features. In a good photograph the reader can see exactly what the author is talking about. The range of photographic possibilities has greatly increased. Today's photographer has many special lenses that allow shots that were conceivably impossible before. Furthermore, cameras may be fastened to other equipment, like microscopes and telescopes, to produce pictures not visible to the unaided human eye.

Finally, cameras can go places the human eye cannot normally go. For instance, photographs are often taken from a plane observing the world below or show magnified views of objects which may well be indiscernible to the human eye.

Drawings

Sometimes the author wants to represent something that can't be produced in the real world and so cannot be photographed. Other times a photograph is simply too expensive or time consuming. Then the writer uses a drawing. For instance, a cross section or cutaway view of a machine, while possible to photograph, requires ruining the machine-the only measure to photograph a cross section of a coffee maker is to cut one in half!

Drawings may additionally be preferable to photographs when the author wants to point out things that can't be photographed, like a memory, or nonexistent or imaginary items, like an artist's rendition of a proposed building.

Diagrams

Finally, sometimes writers want to indicate, not physical objects, but ideas. A diagram is a symbolization well-suited to the presentation of ideas. For instance, a flow chart of a company's corporate structure symbolically represents the power relationships among employees. Another common diagram, based on aobject, is the exploded view, which doesn't aim to picture the article, but to point out the working relationships among its parts. Other typical instances of diagrams include blueprints, wiring schematics, and maps.

All these graphic aids have the common purpose of illustrating and supporting conclusions, recommendations, and interpretations the author places within the text. The writer selects the precise graphic aid by considering the case behind the writing-especially the aim, audience, and author's role

Understanding Patterns

Detecting a pattern within a sequence of ordered units, defined as patterning, is a cognitive ability that is important and influential in learning to read.

Understanding patterns while reading involves the following processes:

Reading for the main idea:

Readers should develop skills to identify the main idea or the central idea in what they read. This skill is necessary to get the main idea, identify the theme and get the implied meanings of the paragraph.

Activities to identify the main idea:

• Underlining key words.
• Selecting the topic sentence.
• Writing the title.
• Turning the sub heads or subtitles into a question (The answer to the question may give the main idea of the paragraph)
• Locating the function words that tie the sentence together. e.g then, therefore, but, etc.

Reading for detains:

Along with reading for and stating the main idea the readers must learn to read for details.

Activities to accomplish reading for details ask the readers to;

• Look at a picture and then describe what they see at the picture.
• Note the details in a paragraph after stating the main idea.
• Identify irrelevant sentences.
• Analyse the paragraph to make a formal outline.
• Carryout simple directions on how to do something.
• Respond to directions.
• Elicit answers concerning the details, develop chart, diagram or map of the sequence of events.

Reading for organization:

Good readers will understand the organisation of what is being read. They arrange the ideas in logical order. The key helps to recall the information is organization. Reading the content areas depends upon proficiency in organisation skills. A Good reader knows how paragraphs are organized.

Activities that help readers learn in a logical order what they are reading:

• Organizing information about a given subject (eg) characteristics of animals)
• Grouping a series of details about a main idea.
• Developing an outline for a story with heading and subheadings.
• Arranging records, directions or ideas in sequential orders.
• Arranging various bits of information about a selected topic and grouping them into an information story.

Reading for summarising and outline:

Summaries help to pressure the essential facts and ideas in capsule form. They retain important information. So, the readers should develop summarizing skill. Outlining is another way of organisation. It is closely related to summarising activities to develop summarizing skills. Summarise a message to be sent as a telegram. Selecting the main idea from the choices you give them. Do exercise for writing an outline. Read a small poem and select the best summary from the choices you give them.

Below are some fundamental reading strategies for understanding patterns:

1. Previewing:

Previewing refers to take a quick glance at a text before actually reading it. It enables readers to understand the organizational structure of a text. Previewing includes the process of skimming through the text and looking at the headings, table of contents (if any) and typographical cues to get the general idea of what the text is about.

2. Contextualizing:

Contextualizing refers to the process of placing the text in its appropriate historical, biographical and cultural background. When one reads a text they often tend to look at it through the lenses of one's won background, leading to a misjudged or biased reading of the text.  Contextualizing helps one eradicate this problem by understanding the scenario and purpose for which the text was written.

3. Questioning:

Asking questions while reading a text helps one remember and understand what they have read up to that moment. Questions should be asked after the end of each paragraph and they should deal with the general gist of that paragraph and not with little details contained inside it.

4. Reflecting:

While reading, one's personal beliefs or opinions may be challenged by the text. Here it is important to reflect on one's unconscionably held beliefs and values and how the text affects them. As one is reading the text for the first time, an X should be marked in the margin at each point where they feel a personal challenge to their attitudes, beliefs, or status. A brief note should be made in the margin about what one feels or about what in the text created the challenge. After marking, the text should be read again to find out any patterns one has regarding personal beliefs.

5. Outlining and summarizing:

Summarizing a text is a great way to ascertain if one has grasped the intended meaning of the text. While outlining deals with the general overview of the text, summarizing is the process of writing down what one has understood about the central idea of the text in their own words thereby forming a new text in itself.

Although summarizing begins with outlining, it always ends with creating its own independent text. Outlining focuses on a close analysis of each paragraph, however, summarizing requires creative synthesis. Outlining and summarizing shows how reading critically can lead to deeper understanding of any text.

6. Evaluating an argument:

Evaluating involves the process of testing the logic of a text, its credibility and emotional impact. Writers make assumptions which they want the readers to accept as true, although a critical reader must always evaluate and question what he reads. One should not accept the details within a text as they are presented before him, he should always be prepared to question and assess the text at every step. This will help the reader to grasp any hidden meanings within the text.

7. Comparing and contrasting related readings:

Comparing the text, one reads with other texts helps the reader to get a better understanding of the text. Sometimes authors refer to similar incidents but with different perspectives. Comparing various texts helps the reader shine new light on a particular subject letting him explore it more deeply. This might also lead to a change in the readers opinions regarding the topic.

4.4  Writing: Types of Essays – Paragraph Organisation, Creating Coherence, Summarization/ Précis Writing

Types of Essays

Scientific Essay

Before writing your essay, first and foremost, you need to know and understand what an essay on science is. So, what is a scientific essay? A scientific essay is an article whereby you have to analyse a scientific issue or problem and then try to develop a solution on the basis of factual information and perhaps provide some of your opinions from your own perspective on the matter as well. Essays on science can be considered different from other types of essays considering the freedom they allow. In other types of essays, you can express yourself. But, in scientific essays, there is little to no room to do so. Contrariwise, science essays seek out impartial logicality and accurate knowledge. Also, these essays test your judgment skills and analysis.

Literary Essay

A literary essay is a type of essay which involves closely studying a text, interpreting its meanings, and exploring why the author made certain choices. It can be applied to novels, short stories, plays, poems, or any other form of literary writing.

A literary analysis essay is not just a summarized version of the plot or a book review. Rather, it is a type of argumentative and analytical essay where you need to analyse various textual elements such as the language, perspective, and structure of the text, and explain how the author uses literary devices to create meaning and convey ideas.

Before beginning a literary analysis essay, it’s essential to carefully read the text and come up with a thesis statement to keep your essay focused. A literary essay follows the same structure as any academic essay:

• An introduction that defines what the rest of the essay is focused on.
• A main body, divided into paragraphs, that builds an argument using evidence from the text.
• A conclusion that clearly states the main point that you have shown with your analysis.

Narrative Essay

The first step in writing an outstanding narrative essay is learning the narrative essay definition. There is no universal definition of narrative essay simply because of how broad and all-encompassing this genre of writing is.

However, when asked to define narrative essay, most academic writers will say that it’s a piece of writing telling a story using a variety of literary device. The narrative essay format is one of the most personal ones in academic writing, but it also requires you to have extensive knowledge of the writing process, not just rely on your own experiences.

Descriptive Essay

Description is a tool that writers use to keep things live for their readers, to make sure their audience is fully immersed in the words on the page. Every time you tell someone a story, or when you tell someone something, you either use the description or you don't know it. The description is basically "I have a blue car" or "That beautiful baby" or "Flowers soften the sun's golden rays and start showing their bright colours". Descriptive words are used to provide more detail and provide more insight. In fact, commentary is a tool that allows many authors (and speakers) to show up instead of just saying, and enabling our readers to interpret our material.

There are two basic types of Objective and Subjective. The meaning of purpose is shown in the first two examples above; Provides a true account of the item. Co-explanation provides a personal examination of the details by selecting specific words and phrases, such as clarifying the colours in the example above. Vibration not only provides information on colours, but also gives the idea or judgment of the value in the description. Many interpretations provide a mixture of both, giving the audience an idea of ​​the emotional state of the subject being described.

Descriptive essays often describe a person, place, or thing that uses sensitive information. The structure of the descriptive text is more flexible than other filtering methods. The introduction of a descriptive article should set the tone and point of the essay. The thesis should convey the author's general opinion of the person, place, or thing described in the body paragraphs.

Article organization can better track spatial order, classification of ideas according to physical characteristics or appearance. Depending on the author's description, the movement can move from top to bottom, left to right, near and far, warm, cold, inviting, and so on.

Example, if the theme was the customer's kitchen during the renovation, you could start heading to one side of the room and then slowly to the other side, explaining materials, cabinetry, and so on. Or, you can choose to start with the old kitchen remnants and move on to new installations. Maybe start at the bottom and climb up to the roof.

Reflective Essay

A reflective essay is a type of written assignment where the author analyses the event from the past using a present point of view. The purpose of a reflective essay is to demonstrate the effect of the past event — specifically, what can be learned from the event and how the event helped shape the personality of the individual writing the paper.

In a way, a descriptive essay is somewhat similar to a reflective essay. Both refer to an event from the writer’s past and both can be equally rewarding for the writer, allowing them to relive the event in their thoughts and possibly even get some closure.

However, there is one key difference between a descriptive essay and a reflective essay is that the purpose of a descriptive essay is to simply describe a past event without providing an in-depth look on the effect of the event on the writer’s personality and present life.

You can use rich language and various literary devices to describe the event, but a descriptive essay barely requires the writer to do any analysis at all. A reflective essay also describes a past event in great detail, but its main purpose is to express the consequences of the event and how they changed the writer’s life and outlook.

The subject of a reflective essay can be nearly anything that influenced your life in a major way. The most popular thing to focus on when writing a reflective essay is a past experience — anything that occurred to you some time in the past. It can be a meeting or conversation with someone that left a lasting impression on you.

Expository Essay

An expository essay is a piece of writing where the author’s job is to introduce the audience to a particular concept.

The big and key difference between an expository essay and a persuasive essay is that the expository essay does not require the author to address his personal attitude to the subject, whereas writing a persuasive essay means expressing an opinion and attempting to convince the audience that it’s the only possibly correct opinion.

After learning the expository essay definition, it’s easy to think that this written assignment is pretty straightforward and can be mastered very quickly. That is why many students are surprised to learn that there are actually six main types of expository essays that are commonly used in modern schools:

1. Definition essay, where the writer attempts to give a more precise definition to a concept that has been already defined by other scholars;
2. Classification essay, where the writer takes a complete concept and breaks it down into groups and pieces;
3. Problem and solution essay, which requires the writer to define a problem and then offer a solution that has the highest chance of solving the problem;
4. Cause and effect essay, where the writer needs to cover the reasons for the subject in question happening and the possible results of the event;
5. Process essay, also known as the “how-to essay”, where the writer describes the steps in a particular procedure that will lead to the desired result;
6. Comparison and contrast essay, where the writer compares two subjects and defines their differences and similarities.

On paper, the assignment of writing an expository essay seems easy, but, as we have already established, there are six types and even more variations of expository essays that you may encounter throughout your academic journey.

The purpose of an expository essay, in general, is to give the readers a detailed introduction of the subject of the paper, but in reality, your job can be different. Always carefully check the writing prompt to see which type of essay you are required to write — only then will you be able to choose the appropriate expository essay format, structure, and content.

Argumentative Essay

An argumentative essay is a type of essay where the writer’s objective is to convince the reader that his opinion is correct by providing compelling arguments backed up by strong evidence.

An argumentative essay follows the same format as other academic essays. However, it is often believed that writing an argumentative essay is as easy as simply voicing your opinion. In reality, even though a personal opinion is an important part of the essay, it’s the arguments and evidence that make the work complete.

When learning how to write argumentative essay, it’s important to remember that the focus and most vital point of an argumentative essay is the argument itself. The rest of the paper, including the introduction, conclusion, and most of the body paragraphs, are simply there to set the context for the subject of the essay and offer support to the argument.

The argument of the argumentative essay is the backbone of the paper that holds it together. You should first state your main argument right in the introduction of the essay and then refer to it several times in the paper, so make sure to make it clear, concise, and able to resonate with the audience.

Imaginative Essay

An imaginative essay is an essay which is fictional in nature and is written completely from the author’s imagination. It may involve partial real-life events but the overall outcome is fictional. It tests the creative ability of a writer in formulating new thoughts, ideas and concepts.

An imaginative essay is narrative and descriptive in style and follows the same format as most academic essays including an introduction, the main body and the conclusion.

Paragraph Organisation

Paragraph Organisation consists of three main elements namely, unity, coherence and emphasis.

Paragraph Unity means that the sentences in a paragraph should be united as a whole. It means that all the sentence a paragraph should be directly supportive of the topic sentence.

They unity of a paragraph can only be said to be established when all the sentences in that paragraph connect to the main idea. Many times while writing, the topic may be ambiguous, insufficient materials or resources may be available, or the purpose might be indefinite, which can lead to a diversified paragraph lacking unity.

Unity in a paragraph always starts with the topic sentence. Every paragraph must contain one single, controlling idea which must be expressed in its topic sentence, which is usually the first sentence of the paragraph. A paragraph must be then written in such a way that it is unified around this main idea, with the supporting sentences providing detail and discussion. In order to write a good topic sentence, think about your main theme and all the points you want to make in your paragraph. Decide which are the driving points, and then write the main one as your topic sentence.

Paragraph Coherence means that each and every sentence in a paragraph are linked together in a continuous line of thought and are organised in such a way so as to form a unity of idea. The sentences in a paragraph must always connect to each other and should work together as a whole with no gaps in the logical process.

Using transition words is one of the best methods of achieving coherence. These words act as bridges that connect sentences. Transition words that show order (first, second, third); spatial relationships (above, below) or logic (furthermore, in addition, in fact) are very useful for connecting sentences. Also, in writing a paragraph, using only one tense throughout and using only one perspective for descriptions are important ingredients for coherency.

There are some techniques which may be helpful with forming coherence in the paragraph:

• First is to think of a very clear topic sentence, the topic sentence must contain the central idea of the paragraph.
• Second is to use question and answer pattern in writing down the topic sentence. The question and answer pattern may be in the form of problem-solution or in general to particular to general format.
• Third is by positioning the topic sentence in the paragraph. Topic sentence is usually placed as the first sentence of the paragraph or sometimes it might serve as a transitional information before the paragraph. It may also be possible to put the topic sentence in the last sentence of the paragraph if it is not explicitly stated but is being implied.
• Another technique is to structure the paragraph using an ordering pattern such as the question-answer pattern, the problem-solution pattern and the topic-illustration pattern.

The third most important requirement of a well ­constructed paragraph is Emphasis. Emphasis in literal terms means “force” or “stress.” You may have a fairly well structured, coherent and unified paragraph but it might be lacking emphasis which is a common mistake among writers. Emphasis means that the main idea of the paragraph must be stressed in every sentence. A paragraph must not seem like a mass of useless details and unnecessary explanations. By keeping the same subject in every sentence, you can be sure that you are emphasising the main idea, whenever this is possible. In this way you are likely to improve the unity because it will not be so easy to go off the track. You are much less likely to introduce unrelated ideas if you are not changing subjects.

There are some techniques which might be useful in emphasising the paragraphs main idea:

You can establish emphasis by position, by repetition by climactic order.

• In establishing emphasis by position, it should be considered that the most significant ideas should be put in the introduction, in the conclusion, or in both parts within the paragraph. The paragraph should be filled with relevant statements not excluding minor details depending upon the need. Ending the paragraph by a summary of recapitulation is also beneficial.
• In establishing emphasis by repetition, the central idea can be repeated by using different words which will stress its importance. This strategy usually impresses the readers most emphatically with what the writer is trying to explain.
• In establishing emphasis by climactic order, the details in the paragraph must be arranged gradually beginning with the simple or least significant and ending with the most complex or most significant.

Creating Coherence

Coherence writing is a logical bridge between words, sentences, and paragraphs. Comprehensive writing uses devices to link ideas within each sentence and paragraph. Key ideas and description can be difficult for the reader to follow when writing is not in line. In this tutorial, you will see some examples and read some tips for making your writing more consistent between words, phrases and paragraphs.

Coherence Between Words:
Between each word, an overlap can be created in parallel. Syntactic structure means using the same grammatical structure between words and sentences. Similarities are very important for words in lists. If you make a list of things that a person likes to do, then each employee on the list should take the same kind of language. For example, if one of the actions in the list takes the 'gaming' form of gerund, the same as 'running', the other items in the list should be in the gerund form.

An informal structure will:
Sara loves jumping, running, and boating.
Instead, the list should be like this:
Sarah loves to jump, run, and walk.

Coherencebetween Sentences:
Cohesion can be formed between sentences by using replication and transition devices. The repetition of words in every sentence helps to repeat the same thoughts between sentences. One way to use repetition to build consensus is to combine the repetition of the same word or phrase at the end of one sentence and at the end of the next sentence to show how thoughts come together. Here is an example of phrases that create reciprocal harmony:

The most important part of the essay is the thesis statement. The thesis statement introduces the contention of the text. Thesis statement also helps to shape the context.

In this example, the repetition of the word 'thesis statement' helps to combine the three sentences. It is a sentence that completes the first sentence and shifts to the next sentence starting with that sentence.

Another way to build consistency between sentences is transformational devices. There are many types of converging devices that show time and help ideas flow smoothly. Change words, such as 'first', 'later', and 'then', are just a few examples of interchange devices that show time to help ideas flow smoothly. Swap devices are like display signs that tell the reader what happened before and where the conversation is going.

CoherenceBetween Categories:
Temporary words can also be used between paragraphs. Words such as:

• Therefore
• However
• Thus
• First
• Later
• After that

It can be used not only between sentences, but between paragraphs to connect them. Other ways to build consistency between categories include paragraph structure and visual consistency. The structure of a related paragraph includes a topic sentence, which focuses on the main idea. The topic sentence usually comes first in the paragraph. The topic sentence is followed by supporting sentences that develop the idea and finally the concluding sentence to put it all together. Temporary words then close the gap between paragraphs, and then the structure begins with another topic sentence in the next paragraph.

Establishing Associations
It is important to consider the conjunction when writing at the sentence level. However, cohesion shapes the flow of text and must be established.

There are various ways to ensure consistent cohesion:

• Write sentences that flow with varying lengths and structures, use punctuation, and extend your choice of words.
• Use simple modifications, such as "in addition, additionally, and, therefore, the opposite, in the same token, at the same time, in other words, etc."
• Repeat your keywords but beware of excessive repetition.
• Repeat sentence structures, used as a means of livelihood rather than unity to emphasize the similarities between sentences.
• Ensure consistency regarding them
• Begin each sentence or paragraph with information showing the content of the next sentence.

Academic writing is improved in terms of cohesion. Without unity and cohesion, students will become confused and ultimately disinterested in the subject. Your ideas are then lost and the original purpose of writing is lost.

Strategies for coherent writing:

There are six ways to make a cohesive encounter, which you will find useful while researching your manuscript.
Building relationships is not as difficult as it seems, but you will need the right tools and strategies to achieve it.

Lexis creates cohesion using text templates, hyponyms, and superordinates. The use of lexical chains creates variety in writing and avoids monotony.

• The index creates combinations by using noun phrases (e.g. Yours, theirs, etc.), pronouns (e.g. He, I, etc.), and commentators (e.g. Those, these, etc.).
• Submission, which is to use a different name instead of the previously mentioned name (e.g. "I bought a designer bag today. You did the same.")
• Ellipsis removal or omission because its meaning is defined in context (e.g. "You go to yoga classes in the afternoon. I hope I can too.")
• Related nouns are also called umbrella nouns because they summarize many words in one.
• Suffixes include words that write ideas (e.g. First, next, then, last, etc.)

Summarization/ Precis Writing

The term precis comes from a French word “précis”, which can be translated as "precise, clear, up to the point”. Therefore, the word precis in the context of writing means a summary of any writing piece, be it a book, an article, or a novel. What is typical while writing a precis is the outline of the main points and arguments presented in the given text. A precis does not contain a deep or critical analysis of the text, but it nevertheless objectively explains the situation narrated in a text.

Precis vs. Summary

A precis and a summary are quite similar to each other but they do contain certain major differences which set them apart. Below are the two main differences between a precis and a summary:

1. A summary consists of a number of brief statements which covers the main points of the text. It has no pre-defined word limit. A precis on the other hand, has its own title and should be 1/3 of the total words of the original passage.
2. A summary is a sort of general overview of the contents of a passage. Here only the main events in the passage are discussed. A precis, however, focuses on every detail and analyses a particular situation.

Rules

Below are the fundamental rules to be followed while writing a precis:

1. Understand the theme of the passage

The first and the most important thing is to thoroughly read and comprehend the purpose of the passage. Once you understand the theme, it is easier to grasp the key ideas in the passage, which will help you remember them while writing the precis.

b.     No copying from the passage

It is important in precis writing to use your own words and not copy from the passage. If you find certain sentences in the passage that you would like to incorporate in your precis, you need to understand them and then craft that sentence in your own words. Key words can be used but entire sentences should always be avoided.

c.      Carry clarity and conciseness

One of the most fundamental rules of writing a precis is clarity. The sentences should be clear, concise, meaningful and too the point. They should reflect the central ideas from the passage.

d.     A reflection of your intelligence

The precis should be written in such a way that it flaunts your writing skills. The use of language, vocabulary and structure of sentences should be perfect. A good precis will provide the readers a good impression of your writing skills and it will also make the precis comprehensible to the readers.

e.     Be original

Each and every sentence in the precis should be one's own creation with no plagiarism whatsoever. If you find a significant idea or motif from the passage that you want to include in your precis, read the passage again and again and try to re-construct the idea from your memory using your own words.

f.        Use of indirect speech

A precis must always be written in indirect speech since it employs the perspective of a third person. Direct speech leaves a personal impact and should be avoided while writing a precis.

g.     Use facts and statistics

To maintain the credibility of the text, try to include all the numbers and facts you read in the text. It will also help you enhance the quality of your writing and will build the interest of the reader in your precis. Therefore, any of the facts and numbers should not be missed while writing the Precis.

h.     An analysis of the various sections

Divide the text into sections and try to analyse each section carefully. A careful analysis of each section will let you draw in closer to the main themes and concepts in the text. Further, you can only mention the crucial content of the passage, if you have read it thoroughly and have identified the areas which carry high proportional value.

i.        An interpretation of the original passage

Always conclude the passage by providing your own understand instead of the writer's perspective. The conclusion has to be from your own point of view but should still be in the third person as if spoken by a third party. It is your interpretation of the text that gives meaning to the precis.

j.        The size of the precis

The size of a precis should always be one third of the original passage.  While writing the precis one should always be aware of the word count but one should also be able to retain the individuality of the passage in the prescribed word limit.

Precis Format

A precis should be short and concise and comprises of three parts: The introduction, the main body and the conclusion.

The Introduction

• The introductory sentence of a precis should mention the author’s name along with the article/book title. It should also include the date of publishing in parenthesis. After that, the topic that you want to discuss in your precis has to be elaborated using a few key words. Extravagant detailing of the topic should be avoided.

• In the introduction, try to include a rhetorical verb outlining the author’s primary purpose (e.g., “assert,” “argue,” “deny,” “refute,” “prove,” disprove,” “explain”). This will give a strong definition to the facts and concepts you are about to present in the main body of your precis.

• It is important to include the thesis statement of the text in the introduction. A thesis statement is the main idea or crux of a particular text. This thesis statement will be elaborated in the main body by providing facts and evidences in its favour.

The Main Body

• The main body should include clarification of how the author formulates and further explains the main themes in the text. It should be informative enough to incite the reader's interest and short enough to retain that interest.

• It should include a sentence that states the purpose of the author in writing the text. Phrases such as “in order” are helpful in developing this sentence.

• Describe how the author establishes his connection with the readers. Always keep the audience for whom you are writing in mind while writing a precis. This includes the using vocabulary and structuring sentences according to the needs of your audience.

• All key points and arguments must be contained in this section.

The Conclusion

• Present a finishing remark of 2-3 sentences to shed light on the author’s intended idea for the book or passage.

• Give a 1-sentence restatement of the major claim which the author used to develop their evidence in the reading.

Steps for Writing a Precis

Below are the steps involved in writing a precis

Step 1: As discussed, the very first step of Precis writing is to form a clear understanding of the passage. You should fully acquaint yourself with the subject first in order to get the meaning behind a passage before starting to write a precis.

Step 2: While reading the content, make sure you highlight the important points of the passage. It will help you in keeping track of the important information that needs to be written in your Precis. Also, you should omit the information, which you feel is not important for your Precis.

Step 3: Further, you need to remember that logical ordering is highly important when it comes to precis writing. Additionally, a logically organised text helps in making things much clearer to your audience and they tend to understand your take in a processed way.

Step 4: If you have some names to be mentioned in your Precis, remember, they should be with the designations, as it helps to increase the credibility of the content. In case, the designations are not mentioned in the passage, you can write the first name.

Step 5: Moving on, the word count of the passage should be taken into account, because one- third of the same has to be written in Precis. Therefore, conducting a word count before beginning the precis could be beneficial.

Step 6: Now, prepare the draft of your Precis by jotting all the important points together. While writing always remember to maintain the flow of your concepts and you should not miss any important information you have gathered while reading the passage.

Step 7: Before finally submitting your Precis, make sure you review all the details carefully. Also, you must do a thorough check of your grammatical and structural errors. Furthermore, one thing not to miss is to mention the total count in a bracket after the end point of your Precis.

4.5   Grammar: Noun –Pronoun Agreement

Noun-Pronoun agreement refers to the correspondence of a pronoun with its antecedent in number (singular, plural), person (first, second, third), and gender (masculine, feminine, neuter).

Typically, one of the basic principles of pronoun concord (also known as noun-pronoun agreement or pronoun-antecedent agreement) is that a singular pronoun refers to a singular noun while a plural pronoun refers to a plural noun.

Below are the rules related to pronoun concord:

Singular Noun, Singular Pronoun:
 

When writing a sentence, using the same word more than once can be repetitive.

Example: Francine edited her paper because her paper was full of errors.

• Rather than repeating "paper" twice, it is possible to use a pronoun.

Revision: Francine edited her paper because it was full of errors.

• Since "paper" is singular (there is only one), use the singular pronoun ("it") to replace it.

Remember to find the exact subject of the sentence to find out whether a pronoun should be singular or plural. See our web page on subject-verb agreement for more on singular and plural subjects.

For example: Each student should find his or herown note taking strategy.

• Since the subject is singular ("each "), the pronoun ("his or her") must also be singular.

For example: NeitherBob and Alex do not believe he will win this award.

• Since the subject is singular ("neither"), the pronoun ("he") must also be singular.

For example: A community group of teachers is meeting tonight to see if it can find a way to help students improve their SAT scores.

• Since the subject is singular ("community group"), the pronoun ("it") must also be singular.

Singular “They"

Recently, a number of popular and popular books have begun to accept the use of the word "them" as a singular pronoun, meaning that the authors use "they" to associate with the target topics in an attempt to avoid male pronouns. Although the pronoun "they" is a plural noun in some style references, APA encourages authors to use "they" as a singular pronoun for the purpose of accepting gender differences.

According to the APA-styleblog, "when people come together and do not change their gender (including age, gender, and other communities) use their unity as their pronoun, the authors rightly use the singular when" writing about them ".

With this in mind, when authors write specifically about an individual or group of people who like singular "they," authors should also use the single "they."

When appropriate, we recommend authors explicitly explain that they have used the singular "they" to follow the identities of the people they are interviewing.

In addition, authors can often avoid the issue of gender-neutral pronouns by updating a sentence to make the subject plural:

Original sentence: Ateacher should carefully choose opportunities for development that address their gaps in knowledge.

Plural Noun, Plural Pronoun:
When the subject of a sentence is plural, the pronoun in the sentence becomes plural as well.

For example: When students arrive on the first day of school, students need help finding the right classroom.

• Since "students " is a plural, use a plural pronoun to replace it.

Revision: When students arrive on the first day of school, they need help finding the right classroom.
Remember to find the exact subject of the sentence to find out whether a pronoun should be singular or plural. See our web page on subject- verbagreement for more on single-subject articles.

For example: When amanageroremployee disagrees, they should discuss the situation.

• Since the subject has a plural ("a manager or employee"), the pronoun ("they") must also be plural.

Example: The professor hopes that students review their notes carefully.

• Since the subject is plural ("students "), the pronoun ("their") must also be plural.

For example: Both Smith (2016) and Taylor (2017) believe that their results will lead to social change.

• Since the subject is plural ("both"), the pronoun ("their") must also be plural.

Pronoun Ambiguity:
Although pronouns are useful to help writers avoid repetition, they should be used sparingly to understand the meaning of the sentence. Look at this sentence:

For example: When Jeff and Brian joined the team members, they were shocked.

• The pronoun here ("they") is unclear - to whom? Was the team nervous? Were Jeff and Brian nervous? In this example, because the pronoun "they" makes sense, choosing a noun instead of a pronoun will help clarify it.

4.6   Vocabulary: Synonyms, Antonyms

Synonyms

Synonyms are words that carry a similar or same meaning to another word. Sometimes even though the synonym of a word has an identical meaning the word and the synonym may not be interchangeable.For example, "blow up" and "explode" have the same meaning, but "blow up" is informal (used more in speech) and "explode" is more formal (used more in writing and careful speech). Synonyms also provide variety to speech and writing.

Many words in the English language contain more than one synonym. Some examples of Synonyms:

Shallow - superficial

Stop – cease

Spontaneous - capricious

Gloomy – sad - unhappy

House - home - abode

Evil - bad - wicked

Garbage - trash - junk - waste 

Present – gift – reward – award

Sniff – smell – inhale

Little – small – tiny

Under – below – beneath

Short list of synonyms in English, listed by the part of speech:

Nouns:

• Belly / stomach
• Children / kids
• Disaster / catastrophe
• Earth / soil
• Father / dad
• Happiness / joy
• Instinct / intuition/ understanding
• Mother / mom
• Present / gift
• Sunrise / dawn

Verbs:

• Answer / reply
• Beat / defeat
• Behave / act
• Begin / start
• Close / shut/ turn on/turn off
• Leave / exit
• Provide / supply/ distribution
• Select / choose
• Shout / yell
• Speak / talk

Adjectives:

• Big / large
• Complete / total/number
• Correct / right
• Crazy / mad
• Foolish / silly /fool/ stupid
• Happy / glad
• Hard / difficult
• Ill / sick
• Last / final
• Near / close
• Sad / unhappy
• Stable / steady/ strong

Adverbs:

• Abroad / overseas
• Almost / nearly/ about / approx.
• Bad / poorly
• Fast / quickly
• Intentionally / purposefully
• Out / outside
• Rarely / seldom/ not common
• Sometimes / occasionally/ periodically
• Surely / for sure/ definetly
• Very / highly / extremely/too much

Prepositions:

• Above / over/ more
• About / regarding / concerning
• Against / versus
• Below / beneath / under
• By / via
• Despite / in spite of
• In / into/ to
• Off / away
• Until / till
• With / including

Conjunctions:

• And / plus
• Because / since
• But / yet/for now
• If / provided
• Once / as soon as possible/ and

Interjections:

• Hello / hi
• Gee / gosh
• Goodness / goodness me / my goodness
• No / nope
• Oh Lord / oh good Lord
• Thanks / thank you
• Whoopee / yahoo / hooray
• Yes / yeah

Antonyms

Antonyms are words that carry the opposite meaning to another word. They can be used to show contrast between two things or emphasize a point. Antonyms can be totally different words from their counterparts or can also be formed by adding prefixes to some words.

Below are some examples of antonyms that are commonly used in the English language:

Antonyms formed by changing entire words

Love – hate

Beginning – ending

Ugly – beautiful

Wild – tame

Extrovert – introvert

Antonyms formed by adding prefix –un

Acceptable - unacceptable

Able - unable

Do - undo

Certain – uncertain

Seen – Unseen

Antonyms formed by adding the prefix –in

Decent – indecent

Tolerant – intolerant

Human – inhuman

Curable – incurable

Expressible – inexpressible

Antonyms formed by adding the prefix –non

Sense – nonsense

Essential – nonessential

Flammable – non-flammable

Renewable – non-renewable

Entity – nonentity

Other prefixes used to form antonyms of words are –anti (Thesis - Antithesis), -ill (Literate – Illiterate), -mis (Informed – Misinformed), -dis (Assemble – Disassemble) etc.

Short list of antonyms in English, listed by the part of speech:

Nouns

• Day / night
• East / west
• The enemy / friend
• Failure / success  
• Guest / host
• Health / disease
• Question / answer
• Speaker / listener
• Summer / winter
• Top / bottom/ up / down

Verbs

• Agree / disagree/accept
• Arrive / leave/ come / go
• Begin / end/ start
• Fall asleep / wakefulness/sleep
• Find / lose/ gain
• Lend / borrowing
• Love / hate
• Open / close/turn on /turn off
• Remember / forget
• Start / stop

Adjectives

• Is asleep / awake
• Beautiful / ugly /good/ bad
• Big / small
• Black / white
• Cheap / expensive
• Dead / alive
• It is dry / wet
• Easy / difficult
• Full / empty
• Good / bad
• Hot / cold
• Intelligent / stupid/you are smart
• Sad / happy/ exciting
• Sick / living healthy
• Thin / fat

Adverbs

• Always / never
• With anger / happily/ excitement
• Fast / slowly
• Here / there
• Inside / outside/ indoors/ outdoors
• Likely / unlikely/possible/ impossible
• Near / far
• Partly / fully
• Seemingly / actually/ visually
• Yesterday / tomorrow

Prepositions

• Above / below
• Against / for / because
• Before / after
• In / out/ indoors/ outdoors
• Like / unlike/ love / contrast
• On / off
• Plus / minus
• To / from
• Towards / away/remote
• With / without

Conjunctions

• And / or
• Therefore / nevertheless /or so

Interjections

• Bravo / boo

• Hello / goodbye
• Holy cow / duh
• Phew / oops
• Thanks / no thanks
• Yes / no
• Yippee / oh my/ oh