Unit 3
Listening
Prediction is an activity, learners perform before reading or listening to a text, where they predict what they're about to hear or read. This gives them a reason to listen or read, as they confirm or reject their predictions.
Example
Learners are going to hear a presentation about a journey through Africa. They predict what vocabulary they may hear, and also what sort of emotions the speaker might have felt. They listen to confirm their ideas.
In the classroom
Prediction may be a valuable stage in listening and reading activities. It mirrors skills use, where predictions form a crucial base for having the ability to process language in real time. Both content and language can be predicted.
Depending on the context – a news, a university lecture, an exchange at a supermarket – you'll often predict the type of words and tone of language the speaker will use. Our knowledge of the world helps us anticipate the type of information we are likely to listen to. Moreover, once we predict the subject of a speech or a conversation, all the related vocabulary stored in our brains is 'activated' to assist us better understand what we're listening to.
Practice predicting content:
Watch or hear a recorded TV program or clip from YouTube. Pause after every few sentences. Try to predict what's about to happen or what the speaker might say next.
If you are taking a listening test, skim through the questions first and try to predict what sort of information you must look out for. A question beginning 'How many...?', for instance, will probably require you to pay attention for a particular number or quantity of something.
Types of Role Plays
Have a Debate:
Conversations are about talking. It's about making positive points in a conversation. Teach your students how to do this in class debate. Choose a suitable topic and topic and divide the class into "sides". If you teach a single class of discussion, allow your student to choose his or her position and you can argue on the opposing side. Give your students time to prepare their opening arguments. After introducing and listening to the opposition, each side should give an answer.
Telephone Calls:
Telephone conversations can be more difficult than in-person conversations. On the phone, you can't read the person's body language or collect many leads in this situation. Instead, you should only rely on the spoken word. Get your students to practice “talking on the phone” by placing chairs in the back or by observing two learners' eyes. Teach them how to answer the phone, what to say during a conversation and how to end the call. You can hide it from another student and select another student to start speaking. A blinded student should guess who is "firing".
Celebrity Interviews:
Students of all ages love to “practice faith”. Help your learners expand their discussion skills by interviewing them. Get your learners in pairs. One student should be a reporter and the other should be an interviewer. After the first interview is done, allow your students to switch roles.
Favorite Scenes:
Tell your learners to form groups. Each group should select a scene from one of their favorite movies. Each team member should say who the other character is in the film. Now, the students have to re-rate the event, wrapping up the discussion. After the practice cycle, students can make a class for me.
Role Play Scenarios
Conversations take place anywhere and everywhere; your students should be prepared to speak in many situations. Help your students by giving them new experiences. Create a new environment for your classroom. For example, Transform your class into an airport. Assign one student to work at the check-in counter, one to the immigration officer and the other to the traveler. Now, get your students to have a proper discussion about their situation. If you teach a discussion class, you can be a ticket taker and your student can be a traveler. After that, you can switch roles. You can create instances like: "bank", "school", "shopping", "day", and many more.
These are some of the fun activities to do with your discussion section. Almost all of these activities can be organized by either a whole class or a one-on-one session. When teaching a discussion class to your language students, you simply have to remember to participate and it is appropriate. While discussion classes do not take that arrangement, it is still a good idea to get to your classroom with an idea or two in mind.
Informal Situation 1:
Conversations about 2 people meeting and starting a conversation
Michael: That test was long! Four hours! I really don't understand why we should take this test. Are our grade point averages (GPAs) grade not good enough for college?
Charlotte: That test seemed a long way off, didn't it? But since the curriculum of one high school is slightly different from another high school, the SAT exam allows colleges to consider each student equally. Although one student may have taken different classes from another student, all high school students take the same SAT exam.
Michael: I think that's reasonable. Either way, I really hope I don't have to test that again!
Charlotte: It's the same here. Well, we'll just have to wait and see. Schools will be out in a few weeks. Anyway, have you received your letters of recommendation?
Michael: I've already asked Mrs. Smith, and I'm thinking about asking Mr. Johnson. I loved both of their classes and I think they know me better than my other teachers, so hopefully the letters will be well written. What about you?
Charlotte: I asked Mrs. Smith to write me a letter. You know Mr. Lawson? I would like to receive a letter of recommendation from him. I hope he remembers me as I haven't had a study with him since last year. I'm not sure who else I asked.
Michael: At least, we each have at least one book. Mrs. Smith is the best, isn't she? I wish I had another class with her, but this is our last polygamy, and after that we graduated!
Charlotte: I agree. Mrs Smith really enjoys teaching, and that helps her students enjoy learning.
Michael: What colleges are you thinking of applying to? Have you visited other campuses?
Charlotte: I'm still wondering if I should stay close to home or go to adult school. I touched the Stanford campus and the people there were very kind. I visited Notre Dame, the University of Indiana. What about you? Have you learned any other campuses?
Michael: I want to live closer to home so I hope to attend California State University or the University of California.
Charlotte: Which one? There are probably one or the other in major cities.
Michael: Probably UCLA, University of California, Los Angeles or CSULB, California State University, Long Beach. But I'm not too worried about getting into college right now. I'm really worried about this SAT exam right now!
Charlotte: I understand how you feel. However, we will still consider what should be done next. It will be worse if we fall behind and can't make it to college next fall. Have you decided what you should read? I tend to think in English myself.
Michael: English is definitely possible. I was thinking of becoming an English teacher like Mrs. Smith. But I was also looking forward to Biological Science.
Charlotte: Why not? Science and Biological Science are two different fields of study. What can you do with a degree in Biological Science?
Michael: I also wonder if I should follow the drug. It may not be too early to decide, but if I want to become a doctor, the classes I will take as a student of Biological Science can fill many medical school needs. But like I said, it's still too early to find out what it is now. I just hope I get into college!
Charlotte: I don't think you have to worry about getting into college. Anyway, let's keep trying our best!
Situation 2:
A dialogue between the new comers on the college campus for acquiring information.
Sujon: Hi, I think you're my new partner.
Salim: You're right. I am Salim. Pleased to meet you, may I know your name?
Sujon: I'm Sujon. I'm new here too.
Salim: Nice to meet you. How are you?
Sujon:I’m fine what about you?
Salim: I'm fine too. May I talk to you about our news?
Sujon: Absolutely! Why not?
Isalima: Why did they choose this college?
Sujon: You know, so far, the college of commerce is concerned that this college should be the best college in our country.
Salim: You're right. In addition, the college program of study is very close, I think.
Sujon: Exactly! I have chosen to get approved for this college for this reason only.
Isalima: All right. Do I know why you chose commerce instead of science?
Sujon: My plan for the future is to study for an MBA. And what about you?
Salim: Good purpose in life. Anyway, I want to study CA. Can you help me find a class process?
Sujon: Well, let's go there.
Salim: Thank you
Intensive Reading/ Detailed Reading – Recognizing, Inferring and Interpreting Specific Contexts
Intensive reading is a type of reading where testing, evaluating and increasing knowledge is the primary focus. Understanding the literal meaning of what’s being read is vital. The process of intensive reading often includes note-taking and paying attention to subtle details.
Intensive reading consists of emphasis on deconstructing sentences to understand grammar and syntax rules as well as to extricate the details of the topic. Reading comprehension is also tested through intensive reading, such as finding answers to specific questions.
Types of intensive reading materials may include reports, contracts, news articles, blog posts and short pieces of text such as short stories.
Characteristics of Intensive Reading
Below are the fundamental characteristics of intensive reading:
- Intensive reading comes into play when we pay attention towards the grammatical forms as well as discourse markers. In addition to this, in such a type of reading we pay attention towards the minute surface structure details also. This facilitates the understanding of the literal meaning as well as implications in addition to the rhetorical relationships.
2. It is ideally a classroom-based reading where the reader is intensely engrossed in looking inside the text in depth. Apart from this, the reader pays attention towards the linguistic or the semantic details as well as on the surface structure. These include the grammar and the discourse markers.
3. Another key trait of this reading is that the reader identifies the key vocabulary and might also draw pictures to assist the same so as to solve issues where ever these might arise. In such a reading the text is read carefully as well as thoroughly in repeated fashion if the need so arises.
4. This type of reading aims to enhance the language knowledge instead of simply practising the skill of reading. There are a lot of skills that are developed if you go in for intensive reading. To highlight a few, you get thorough with the rapid reading practice in addition to being able to interpret text by making use of the word attack skills, text attack skills and also the non-text information.
Below are the techniques for intensive reading to recognize, infer and interpret specific contexts in a text:
1. Previewing:
Previewing refers to take a quick glance at a text before actually reading it. It enables readers to understand the organizational structure of a text. Previewing includes the process of skimming through the text and looking at the headings, table of contents (if any) and typographical cues to get the general idea of what the text is about.
2. Contextualizing:
Contextualizing refers to the process of placing the text in its appropriate historical, biographical and cultural background. When one reads a text they often tend to look at it through the lenses of one's won background, leading to a misjudged or biased reading of the text. Contextualizing helps one eradicate this problem by understanding the scenario and purpose for which the text was written.
3. Questioning:
Asking questions while reading a text helps one remember and understand what they have read up to that moment. Questions should be asked after the end of each paragraph and they should deal with the general gist of that paragraph and not with little details contained inside it.
4. Reflecting:
While reading, one's personal beliefs or opinions may be challenged by the text. Here it is important to reflect on one's unconscionably held beliefs and values and how the text affects them. As one is reading the text for the first time, an X should be marked in the margin at each point where they feel a personal challenge to their attitudes, beliefs, or status. A brief note should be made in the margin about what one feels or about what in the text created the challenge. After marking, the text should be read again to find out any patterns one has regarding personal beliefs.
5. Outlining and summarizing:
Summarizing a text is a great way to ascertain if one has grasped the intended meaning of the text. While outlining deals with the general overview of the text, summarizing is the process of writing down what one has understood about the central idea of the text in their own words thereby forming a new text in itself.
Although summarizing begins with outlining, it always ends with creating its own independent text. Outlining focuses on a close analysis of each paragraph, however, summarizing requires creative synthesis. Outlining and summarizing shows how reading critically can lead to deeper understanding of any text.
6. Evaluating an argument:
Evaluating involves the process of testing the logic of a text, its credibility and emotional impact. Writers make assumptions which they want the readers to accept as true, although a critical reader must always evaluate and question what he reads. One should not accept the details within a text as they are presented before him, he should always be prepared to question and assess the text at every step. This will help the reader to grasp any hidden meanings within the text.
7. Comparing and contrasting related readings:
Comparing the text, one reads with other texts helps the reader to get a better understanding of the text. Sometimes authors refer to similar incidents but with different perspectives. Comparing various texts helps the reader shine new light on a particular subject letting him explore it more deeply. This might also lead to a change in the readers opinions regarding the topic.
Strategies to use Text Clues for Reading Comprehension
Using Text clues is a great way to understand what you are reading even if you don’t know all the vocabulary being used. Text clues can be found in the words and sentences surrounding the word that you aren’t familiar with. To use context clues, you can focus on the key phrases or ideas in a sentence and deduce the main idea of a sentence or paragraph based on this information. You can also look for nearby words that are synonyms or antonyms of the word you don’t know.
When you encounter a word, you do not know as you're reading, you may prefer to look it up in a dictionary, ignore it or use the encircling words to help you determine what the word means. Determining the meaning of a word by using the words encompassing it is using text clues. Even if you cannot discover the precise definition, phrases and words should be able to assist you to make a guess about the word's meaning.
Below are some methods that may be used to understand text clues:
Look for examples, illustrations or explanations. Difficult or uncommon words may be followed by related information to help discern the meaning. The writer may often use phrases to help identify examples and explanations: for instance, such as, including, consists of, for instance, is like. Even without specific words introducing the meaning of an unknown word, phrases and sentences within the paragraph give further explanation, often enough to form a logical or educated guess as to the meaning of the word.
Definitions are sometimes included in the text. Consider this example, "After the fire, the whole office was restricted, that is only some people could enter, for several days." in this example, the author built the definition directly into the sentence.
Often it would appear that surrounding words or phrases contain synonyms of the unknown words. For example, "The boss complained when he was tardy, or late, for work for the third time during this week."
Antonyms may also be used to help readers find out the meaning of a word. For instance, "Joe was very tired after the trip but Tom was conscious and alert."
Experiences may also be used to explain unknown words. "Roger was reluctant to sign up as a volunteer at a charity event. Last time he jumped right in and found there was way more responsibility than he was able to take on and it took up an immense amount of time. This time, Roger decided to take his time, offering only a couple of hours a month instead of whatever time was needed. His fear of making a fast decision paid off and he really enjoyed the work once he could control how much time he gave to the organization."
Principles of Good Writing
By the term 'text' we refer to a passage consisting of different sentences written in continuous prose. It could be just a paragraph. When we read the paragraph, we can understand what is said and we can be able to follow the thinking of the writer. If we are not able to follow we can say that the concerned paragraph lacks cohesion and coherence.
Below are the fundamental principles of good writing:
Discourse skill:
It is a skill of presenting ideas and arguments of the writer logically. If this skill is developed we come to know what is coherence and cohesion. Every line has a logical link with the previous one in the text or paragraph which is called the link between sentences in a paragraph. They are:
Topical
Grammatical
Logical.
This type of link or inter connectedness is known as cohesion. Topical cohesion is lexical in nature. Logical cohesion is known as coherence.
- Topical cohesion
In a text only one topic is dealt with. It has collocation of related make use of words. Whenever we are writing on a particular topic we appropriate register. So register is the term used to denote the variety of language which depends on its particular use. But using proper register is a hall mark of advanced mastery of the language. Hence it is sufficient to learn collocation rather than register. Topically connected words and its repetition is seen in the text. Synonyms are freely used.
B. Grammatical cohesion:
Here sentences can be interconnected by grammar. Grammatical relationship can be brought about by the use of pronouns appositives etc.
C. Logical cohesion or Coherence:
A sentence in a text should be logically connected. Logical cohesive is achieved by the use of certain words and expressions. There are about a dozen logical devices used to promote cohesion.
- Addition: We add one sentence to another by using linguistic markers like and, besides, in addition, moreover, further, again etc.
e.g: He has a car. In addition, he owns a bike
- Amplification: Amplification means adding details to the text. It is more or less like addition. The same linguistic markers are used here also.
e.g: He came to see me moreover he brought good news.
- Comparison: Here the first sentence states something. Similar idea is expressed in the second sentence. Markers used are similarly and likewise.
e.g: Rama got his degree. Similarly, Gopal also got his degree
- Contrast: The second sentence strikes a contrast with the first sentence making use of linguistic markers like 'but, however, whereas, etc.
e.g: He is poor but he is kind.
- Concession: The second sentence makes a concession on the basis of the sentence. The linguistic markers used are through, although, even though.
e.g: He is poor. Though he is poor he is kind.
- Condition: The second sentence puts forth a condition-based idea with reference he first sentence if, unless, as long as are used.
e. g: If you work hard, you will pass.
- Cause and effect: The first sentence states the cause or reason. The second sentence covers the effect of that cause. As a result, therefore are used as refers to the linguistic markers.
e.g: He is suffering from fever. Therefore, he has not come to school.
- Enumeration: The sentence making, use of this device draw up a list. The markers used are 'first, to begin, finally' etc.
e.g: He was persistently asking me for a loan. Finally, he went away.
- Exemplification: The second sentence gives an example for what is stated in the first sentence. The linguistic markers used are for example, for instance, etc.
e.g: The government has implemented a number of good schemes.
For example, adult education has been given great importance.
- Temporal Relationship: The second sentence refers to a time factor connected to the first sentence. 'before, after, during, meanwhile etc are used.
e.g: We were discussing the problem.
Meanwhile the problem has worsened.
- Conclusion: The second sentence arises at a conclusion based on the idea expressed in the first sentence. The markers used are" to conclude, to sum up, in brief etc.
e.g: He has no clear alibi, to conclude he is the culprit.
- Reformulation: The second sentence 'remarks the first sentence. The markers used are in the other words, he is dishonest etc.
Introduction to Essay Writing
Dimension of Essay Writing
There are many types of essays and papers you can write as a student. The content and length of the essay varies depending on your level, subject of study, and the requirements of a particular course.
However, many subject bodies share the same goal. They aim to convince students of a position or perspective through informed, evidence-based, analytical and interpretive debates.
In addition, every story has an introduction, body and ending that always do the same or few things.
Essay Writing Process:
The essay writing process consists of three stages: preparation, writing and revision. These categories apply to each article or paper. However, the time and energy spent in each category depends on the sort of essay, for instance a private statement, a press release of intent, a high school essay or a grad school essay.
Preparation:
- Understand the assignment
- Understand your audience
- Select a topic
- Do some initial research
- Name the thesis statement
- Create an outline
Writing:
- Write an introduction
- Organize your arguments and give evidence
- Write the conclusion
Review:
- Analyse the organization
- Review the content of each paragraph
- Proofread for language errors
- Check for plagiarism
Introduction of an Essay:
The introduction is important to both capture the reader's interest and inform them of what will be found in the story. The introduction usually contains 10-20% of the text. To learn how to write an article introduction, first become familiar with its most important objectives.
- Move your student by chasing curiosity and curiosity:
The first sentence of the introduction should draw your student's wish. This sentence is sometimes referred to as a hook. It can be a question, quote, a surprising number, or a bold statement that emphasizes the importance of a topic.
Let's say you write an article about the development of Braille (a literacy program used by the visually impaired). A boat can be something like:
The introduction of Braille marked the biggest turning point in the history of disability.
- Provide background and context for your topic:
After you dismiss the student, it is important to provide context that will help your student understand your argument. This may include providing background information, providing an overview of important academic work or arguments on a topic, as well as explaining difficult words. Do not give too many details in the introduction - you can adequately describe the content of your essay.
- Explain the purpose and create a thesis statement:
Next, you have to explain your basic argument or thesis statement. The thesis statement provides focus and reflects your position on the topic. Usually one or two sentences long. An example of a thesis statement from Braille essay can be seen as follows:
The idea of orthopaedics was not entirely new; Louis Braille adapted simple ways to create the first system for writing to the blind. But its success depended on the reception of people who had sinned before the social status of blindness was reversed, and the process was shaped by widespread debates about the place of people with disabilities in society.
- Provide a content map:
Finish the introduction with an overview of your site structure. An overview should give the reader a general idea of what each paragraph of your article is examining.
The Body of the Essay:
The theme of your article is when you make arguments that support your thesis statement, provide evidence, and develop your ideas. His main purpose is to present, interpret and analyse the information and sources you have gathered to support your argument.
- Length of body text:
The length of the body depends on the type of description. On average, the body comprises 60-80% of your material. In a high school essay, this can be just three paragraphs, but with a 6,000-word graduate essay, the body can take 8-10 pages.
- Section layout/Paragraph Structure:
In order to give your essay a clear structure, it is important to use paragraphs and topics. This makes the content unwanted and easy to digest. Each section should focus on a point of view or a single point of view.
The purpose of each paragraph is presented using topic sentences. The topic clause creates a transition from the previous paragraph and informs the argument to be made in this paragraph. Change words can be used to create smooth transitions between sentences.
After the topic sentence, demonstrate evidence by providing the reader with data, examples or quotes. Be sure to interpret and explain the evidence, and show how the paragraph helps improve your overall argument.
Conclusion of an Essay:
Conclusion The last paragraph of the article or paper. It takes about 10-20% of your article. Strong conclusion:
- Draws connections between the arguments made in the body of the story.
- State the consequences of your argument.
- Emphasize the importance and importance of a thesis statement of policy, education or the wider world.
- Evaluates key findings and the importance of the topic
A good conclusion should end with a memorable or impactful sentence that emphasizes the importance of your work and leaves the reader with a strong final impression.
What you should not do is enter the end
To make the end of your article as strong as possible, there are a few things you should avoid including. The most common errors are:
Includes new argument or evidence.
Minimize your conflicts (e.g. "This is one way for many").
Concluding phrases such as “Cheating…” or “Conclusion…” are used.
How to write an essay
- The story begins with a hook that catches your reader's interest.
- Introduction provides background and context that help your reader understand the topic.
- The introduction contains a thesis statement that provides focus and reflects your position on the topic.
- Paragraphs and titles are used for story planning.
- Each paragraph deals with a single idea, debate or issue.
- Subject sentences are used to create a smooth transition between paragraphs.
- The conclusion is not only brief, but draws a link between issues.
- The significance of the thesis statement is emphasized in the conclusion.
- Conclusion does not contain new ideas, arguments or evidence.
Verb – Tenses
A verb is a word that expresses the state of being or work being done by the subject. There are main verbs and there are also helping verbs known as auxiliary verbs. Verbs can also be used to express tense.
Ex – She vanished in the darkness.
Finite and Non-Finite Verbs
In every sentence, there is normally at least one verb that has both a subject and a tense. When a verb contains both a subject and a tense, it can be defined as a finite verb.
Example: We want Charlie to act as club secretary.
I like taking photographs of insects.
While coming home last night, I saw a leopard run across the road.
A non-finite verb is a verb which is not defined by its subject and tense. The present and past participles, and the 'to' infinitive are the most common types of non-finite verbs. Every verb in the English language can be used in a clause in either a finite or non-finite way.
A verb is called as finite if it is discovered in a clause in combination with a subject and a tense.
I walked home.
We saw a deer.
They appreciate a little praise now and then.
It is non-finite if it is used:
- Without the verb having a tense:
To open, tear off the tab.
Looking around, he noticed a letter on the floor.
Worn out by the heat, they stopped for a drink.
- Without an agreement between the verb and the subject (if there is one).
That plan failing, he gave up.
Our guests departed, we felt a little depressed.
A compound verb comprises of one finite part, which is mostly the first auxiliary verb, while the remaining non-finite parts are the base form or the participles.
I may have been joking when I said that.
Helen was running around screaming.
I had been living in a dream for months.
Olivia is coming around at 9 o’clock tonight.
Verbs in simple present and simple past tense are always finite.
I sing.
We tell stories at night.
Maya laughed.
The shelter collapsed.
A finite verb is sometimes immediately followed by a non-finite verb.
I like to get up early on the weekends.
Harriet really dislikes cleaning the cooker.
I certainly wouldn’t want to see him again.
We persuaded them to join us.
Many a times, a noun or pronoun enters the space between a finite and non-finite verb.
We want Charlie to act as club secretary.
She wanted him to wash his hands in the bathroom.
I don’t like you cleaning your boots over the sink.
When the second verb is an -ing form coming after a noun or pronoun, there can be a difference in grammar between two similar sentences. Both sentences below are acceptable, although the first example might seem ambiguous to some people. In the second sentence, the -ing form is used as a verbal noun.
She didn’t likehimcleaning his gloves over the sink.
She didn’t likehiscleaning his gloves over the sink.
Gerunds and Participles
A gerund is a word which is created from a verb but always serves the function of a noun. Gerunds always end with the -ing at the end of the word. Being used as a noun, a gerund can function as a subject, a subject complement, a direct object, an indirect object, or an object of a preposition. Gerunds often look like present participles but they are not to be confused with them. The main difference between these two is that gerunds are specifically placed in the noun position of a sentence whereas present participles are placed with the verb phrase, often as modifiers.
Below an example of a gerund in the position of the subject:
Brushing your hair prevents it from tangling.
In this sentence, the word brushing is the gerund functioning as the subject of the sentence.
If a gerund were to be the complement of a subject in a sentence, it would look like this:
Her number one priority is working.
In this sentence, the word working is functioning as a complement to the subject, priority.
Gerunds can also function as the object of a sentence. Below is an example where the gerund is functioning as the object of a preposition:
“There is no use in standing in that line for four hours,” grandma said.
In this sentence, standing follows the preposition in, making it the object of the preposition.
A participle, on the other hand, is a word created from verbs that are then used as adjectives to modify nouns in a sentence. They can also be used as introductions to adverbial phrases.
Participles can be classified into two types: Present participles and Past participles. Present participles always end with the -ing at the end of a word and correlate to events that are taking place in the present. The past participle can be either regular or irregular and describes events that have already taken place.
Participles can often function as gerunds which could make it difficult to differentiate between the two.
When using a participle as an adjective, consider the below sentence:
The ripening fruit should be put outside for composting.
Ripening here acts as a present participle (noted by the -ing ending) that is modifying the noun fruit.
I spent the week day studying chemistry.
In the sentence above, the word 'studying' acts as a present participle which functions as the beginning of an adverbial phrase in the sentence. The phrase studying chemistry is modifying the verb spent. How did I spend the whole week? Studying chemistry.
Both of the above examples were present participles, meaning the words ended in -ing to describe something happening in the present. However, Past participles can have different word endings depending upon the nature and context of the word being used; Most often, there will be a -d or -ed added to the end of a word in a past participle. Let’s look at a couple of examples:
The doors cracked open when the rain hurricane came through.
Here, the word cracked acts as a past participle functioning as an adjective to modify the noun doors.
He continued forward cautioned by the desolate streets.
Here, cautioned is the past participle in the sentence functioning as the beginning of an adverbial phrase describing the word continued.
Auxiliary Verbs
Auxiliary verbs, also known as helping verbs because they help in the formation of tenses, mood and voices of other verbs. Auxiliary verbs therefore, add functional or grammatical meaning to the clause in which they appear. 'To be', 'to do' and 'to have' are the most commonly used auxiliary verbs. For example: the auxiliary 'to do' is needed to ask questions in the present and past simple tenses.. The auxiliary 'to have' is used in the present and past perfect tenses. Some tenses such as the present perfect continuous, consist of more than one auxiliary verbs.
Below are examples of some commonly used auxiliary verbs:
Do you like German food?
Does your mother speak English?
Did you come to school yesterday?
Why are you talking? You should be listening to me!
I was having a bath when you called!
A new annex is being built behind the school.
Have you done your homework?
My father has never visited the USA.
How long have you been living in Germany?
By this time next year, I willhavebeen learning French for 15 years!
Contracted Verb Forms
The auxiliary verbs are very often contracted. For example, it can be said that I'm playing tennis today, instead of I am playing tennis today. These contracted forms of auxiliary verbs are more likely to be used in spoken forms or informal writing. Consider speaking to someone: Why did you not call me yesterday? and instead: Why didn't you call me? It is obvious that the latter seems more probable and consistent.
Conversely, while writing a report or an essay, it is more appropriate to write the full form without contractions: Why did America not join the war until 1941? (instead of: Why didn't America ...?).
The contracted form of auxiliaries can have multiple forms all of which can be correct depending on the context.
She's not going to the dance.
She isn't going to the dance.
I haven't seen him for ages.
I've not seen him for ages.
The full form is commonly used in spoken language only when the speaker wants to emphasize what they are saying. e:
Why don't you call him?
I have called him.
I do not want to see him again.
Modal verbs
Auxiliary verbs also consist of another set of verbs called modal verbs or modal auxiliary verbs. These verbs combine with other verbs to describe necessity, possibility, intention, or ability. Modal auxiliary verbs include - must, shall, will, should, would, ought (to), can, could, may, and might.
You must act promptly.
Can you speak Spanish?
I would go if I could afford it.
He said he might reconsider his decision.
I ought to visit my family.
We should get to London before midday.
Tenses
Tenses determine whether something has happened, is happening, or will happen. The tense of a verb describes its position in time.
Tenses can be divided into 3 main types and further sub dived into 4 types:
PRESENT TENSES
1. SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE: In this type of tense the action is still taking place, there is no mention of its completeness.
Example: I sleep.
She studies vocabulary every day.
2. PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE: In this type of tense the action is still in progress, therefore the use of the word ‘continuous’.
Example: I am sleeping.
I am eating lunch, I will call you later.
3. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE: In this type of tense the action has already been completed, hence the use of the word ‘perfect’.
Example: I have slept.
I have eaten Chinese food a few times already.
4. PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE: In this type of tense, the action has started taking place beforehand and is still ongoing.
Example: I have been sleeping.
I have been eating a lot of vegetables lately.
PAST TENSES
1. SIMPLE PAST TENSE: In this type of tense the action which is mentioned has already taken place in the past, there is no continuity.
Example: I got some sleep yesterday.
2. PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE: This type of tense describes an on-going action that took place in the past.
Example: I was having lunch when u called yesterday.
3. PAST PERFECT TENSE: This type of tense describes a completed action which took place in the past.
Examples: I had slept.
I had already eaten when my doorbell rang.
4. PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE: This type of tense describes an action which started in the past and continued until another point in time, still in the past.
Example: I had been sleeping for two hours before my friend arrived.
FUTURE TENSES
1. SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE: This type of tense describes an action taking place in the future; there is no mention of its continuity.
Example: I will sleep.
I shall finish my project by tomorrow morning.
2. FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE: This type of tense describes an action that will take place in the future but will still be ongoing.
Example: I will be sleeping at 11 p.m.
I’ll be staying at my parents’ house for a few weeks.
3. FUTURE PERFECT TENSE: This type of tense describes an action that will occur in the future before another action in the future.
Example: I will have slept before you arrive.
4. FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE: This type of tense describes an on-going action in the future before a completed action in a specific point in time.
Example: I will have been sleeping for seven hours by 9 a.m. Tomorrow morning.
I will have been studying for two hours by the time my parents arrive.
Below are some basic rules regarding the sequencing of tenses:
Rule 1
A past tense in the independent clause is always followed by a past tense in the subordinate clause.
Example: I found out that she was out of town.
However, there is an exception to this rule. When the independent clause in the past tense, the subordinate clause can be in the present tense if a universal truth is being stated by it.
Example: The children were taught that honesty is the best policy.
Another exception to this rule is when the word ‘than’ is used in the sentence to introduce the subordinate clause. In this case, the subordinate clause can be used in any tense irrespective of the tense of the independent clause.
Rule 2
If the tense used with the independent clause is in the present or future tense, the tense of the subordinate clause can be in any tense based on what needs to be conveyed.
Example: She is saying that she is alright. She says she is fine.
Rule 3
If the independent clause is in the future tense, the subordinate clause is not used in the future tense instead a subordinating clause beginning with when, until, before, after etc. is used.
Example: I will call you when dinner is ready. I shall wait until you return.
Rule 4
When the subordinate clause is introduced with the conjunction ‘that’, the following rules must be followed,
- ‘May’ should be used in the subordinate clause when the independent clause is in the present tense.
- ‘Might’ should be used in the subordinate clause when the independent clause is in the past tense.
Example: We eat that we may live. She tried to live so that he might have a chance at life.
Rule 5
When some phrases such as If only, wish that, what if, it is time are used, the clauses that follow it are always in the past tense.
Example: I wish I could eat another ice cream.
Subject-verb Agreement
A subject – verb concord refers to the agreement formed between the subject and verb in a sentence which makes the sentence meaningful and sound structurally correct.
Below are the rules of a Subject-Verb concord:
Being able to find the right title and action will help you correct the mistakes of the action agreement.
Basic Rule. A singular subject (he, Bill, car) takes a singular verb (goes, shiny), and the plural subject takes a plural verb.
For example: The list of items is /are on the table.
If you know that a list is a topic, then you will choose it for the Verb.
- Rule 1. The subject will come before the sentence you begin. This is an important rule for understanding subjects/lessons. The word of is the culprit in many, perhaps most, subject-verb mistakes.
Funny writers, speakers, readers and the audience can miss the most common mistake in the following sentence:
Incorrect: The bouquet of yellow roses lends color and aroma to the room.
Correct: A bouquet of flowers of yellow roses lends. . . (borrowing a bouquet of flowers, not roses lend)
- Rule 2. Two related topics linked by, or,either/ or, or neither / nor require one action.
Examples:
My aunt or my uncle is arriving by train today.
Neither Juan nor Carmen is available.
Either Kiana or Casey is helping today with stage decorations.
- Rule 3. The verb in an or, either / or, or neither / nor sentence agrees with the noun or pronoun next to it.
Examples:
Neither the plates nor the serving bowl goes on that shelf.
Neither the serving bowl nor the plates go on that shelf.
This rule can lead to traffic congestion. For example, if I'm one of two (or more) subjects, it could lead to this unusual sentence:
Awkward: Neither she, my friends, nor I am going to the festival.
If possible, it is better to rearrange such correct sentences in the language but be negative.
Better: Neither she, I, nor my friends attend the festival.
Or
She, my friends, and I are not going to the festival.
- Rule 4. As a general rule, use a plural action for two or more subjects if they are linked by.
Example: A car and a bicycle are my mode of transportation.
But note the exceptions:
- Exceptions:
Breaking and entering is against the law.
The bed and breakfast was charming.
In those sentences, breaking and entering and the bed and breakfast are complicated nouns.
- Rule 5a. Sometimes a subject is separated from a verb by words such as once, and, and besides, not, etc. These words and phrases are not part of the title. Ignore them and use only one action when the subject is alone.
Examples:
The politician, along with the newsmen, is expected shortly.
Excitement, as well as nervousness, is the cause of her shaking.
- Rule 5b. Parents are not part of the topic.
Example: Joe (and his trusty mutt) was always welcome.
If this seems difficult, try rewriting the sentence.
- Rule 6. In sentences that begin here or there, the actual subject follows the verb.
Examples:
There are four hurdles to jump.
There is a high hurdle to jump.
Here are the keys.
- NOTE:
The word existence, some consensus exists, leads to bad habits in illegal sentences such as There are a lot of people here today, because it's easier to say "there" than "there is." Take care never to use an article on a plural subject.
- Rule 7. Use the unit-by-unit action, time periods, currency, etc., when considered a unit.
Examples:
Three miles is too far to walk.
Five years is the maximum sentence for that offense.
Ten dollars is a high price to pay.
BUT
Ten dollars (i.e., dollar bills) were scattered on the floor.
- Rule 8. In words that indicate parts - e.g., many, many, all, all - Regulation 1 given earlier in this section is reversed, and we are guided by the noun in the background. If the noun is one after the other, use one action. If plural, use the plural verb.
Examples:
A lot of the pie has disappeared.
A lot of the pies have disappeared.
A third of the city is unemployed.
A third of the people are unemployed.
All of the pie is gone.
All of the pies are gone.
Some of the pie is missing.
Some of the pies are missing.
- NOTE:
In recent years, the SAT test service has considered none of it very important. However, according to Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of English Usage: "Obviously no one has been united and plural since Old English and still is. The idea that it is compiled only is a myth of an unknown origin that probably originated in the 19th century. If it seems to you, use one verb; if there seems to be a plural, use a plural verb. Both are accepted without serious criticism. " When none is clearly intended to mean "not one," it is followed by a singular verb.
- Rule 9. With collective nouns such as group, jury, family, audience, population, the action may be singular or plural, depending on the author's intent.
Examples:
All of my family has arrived OR have arrived.
Most of the jury is here OR are here.
A third of the population was not in favor OR were not in favor of the bill.
- NOTE:
Anyone using a collective verb with a collective pronoun should be aware of the accuracy - and also disagree. It should not be done with care. The following is the kind of error sentence that a person sees and doesn't hear much these days:
The staff decides how they want to vote.
Careful speakers and writers can avoid sharing their singular and plural to work in one sentence.
Consistent: The staff are deciding how they want to vote.
Rewriting such sentences is recommended whenever possible. The preceding sentence will read better like:
The staff members are deciding how they want to vote.
- Rule10. The word instead consisted of statements expressing desire or contradicting the truth:
For example: If Joe werehere, you would be sorry.
Shouldn't Joe be followed by him, not, given that Joe is alone? But Joe is not here, so we say it wasn't. The sentence indicates the state of injection, which is used to express things that are logical, wishful, rational, or controversial. The general motive reflects a few lessons and what we often think of as pluralism.
Examples:
I wish it wereFriday.
He requested that she raise his hand.
In the first example, a wish statement is presented, not a fact; So, it's been something, which we often think of as a mathematical act, used with it. (Technically, one article in a reunion: it was Friday.)
Usually, he used to sound awful to us. However, in the second example, when an application is presented, the subjunctive mood is correct.
- Note: The punctuation condition is lost in spoken English but should be used in formal speech and writing.
Prefixes
The affixes that are added before the base form are called prefixes. A prefix is a syllable or syllables placed at the beginning of a word to qualify its meaning and form a new word. It has its origin from Greek, Latin and Native English.
The prefixes are classified as follows:
- Negative Prefixes
- Reversative Prefixes
- Pejorative Prefixes
- Prefixes of Degree or size
- Prefixes of Attitude
- Locative Prefixes
- Prefixes of time and order
- Number Prefixes
- Other prefixes
- Conversion prefixes
Negative Prefixes:
a) The negative prefix'- 'in' is used-with words of Latin origin –‘Un’ is found in English Unfortunate, injustice.
b) The exact opposite meaning is brought by the prefix – dislike, disloyal.
c) Latin and French non-meaning not is used Non-violence, non-committal.
d) A-means lacking, a moral, asymmetry.
Reversative Prefixes:
a) Un - means to 'reverse action. Added to verbs (Reverse of Action) untie, unseat, unload.
b) de - means to reverse action added to abstract noun defrost, deforestation.
c) dis - to deprive of' is added to verbs, participles and nouns. Disconnect, discoloured, discontent.
Pejorative Prefixes:
Depreciatory means diminish in value.
a) mis– wrongly
misinform, misconduct, misleading
b) mal - means 'badly
mal treat, mal function, mal formed, malodorous
c) Pseudo means false
Pseudopodia, pseudo-intellectual
Prefixes of Degree or size:
a) Arch - highest, chief
Archbishop
b) Super - means above, more than, better
superman, super market, supernatural
c) Out - means to do something, faster, longer
Out run, out live
d) Sur - means over and above
surtax
e) Sub - means lower than, less than
sub human, sub standard, subordinate
f) Over -too much
over real, over dressed, over confident
g) under - means too little
undertook
h) Ultra - means extremely
ultraviolet, ultra modern
i) Mini - means small or little
miniskirt
Prefixes of Attitude:
a) co - with or joint
co-operative, co pilot
b) Counter - means in opposition to
countuant, counter-revolution
c) Anti means against
Antisocial, anticlockwise, antimissile.
d) Pro- means of the side of
Pro-communist
Locative Prefixes:
Super –Over - super structure
Sub -means beneath - subway subconscious
Inter means between - international interaction
Trans - means across - transplant, translation
Prefixes of time and order:
Fore - -means before - fore tell
Post - means after - post-war Ex-means former
Pre - means before - pre-war, pre-planned
Ex – means former - ex-minister
Re - means again - rebuild, resettlement, rewrite
Number Prefixes:
Uni, mono means one - unilateral, monotheism
Bi, di means two - bi lingual, dipole
Tri means three - tripartite
Poly, multi means many - multi racial, poly syllabic
Other Prefixes:
Semi means half - Semi circle
Vice means deputy - Vice president
Auto means self - Auto biography
Neo means new - neo-gothic
Pan means world wide - Pan-American
Proto means first - prototype.
Conversion Prefixes:
Be, en and a
Be spectated (Participle adjective)
Bewitch (transitive verb)
Enslave (verb) afloat (adjective)
Suffixes
The affixes that are added after the base-form are called suffixes. A suffix is a syllable or syllables placed at the end of a word which qualify its meaning and form a new word. Derivational suffixes are used to derive new words from the base form. Inflectional suffixes merely modify a word as in the book - books etc.
Below are the various types of suffixes:
Occupational suffixes:
Ster - person engaged in - gangster
EER - an occupation - engineer
ER - in habitat - Londoner.
Diminutive or Feminine:
Let means small - booklet, piglet
ETTE means small - Kitchenette
Compact - Statuette
Imitation- Flannelette
Female - Usherette
Ess means female - Waitress, hostess, etc
y, - means daddy, auntie
Status, Domain:
HOOD means status - boyhood, childhood
SHIP means status- friendship
DOM means domain - kingdom, stardom
OCR means system of Government - democracy
EYR means behaviour Abode – slavery,
Abode - nunnery
Collectivity – machinery
Noun/Adjective:
ITE means faction - Israelite, socialite
AN means pertaining to-Indonesian, republican
ESE means nationality - Chinese
IST means occupation-Violinist, Organist
ISM means attitude - idealism Political movement-communism
Noun Suffixes:
ER, OR means instrumental - driver, actor
ANT means agentive- inhabitant
EE means passive - employee
ATION means institution - organization
MENT means action - amazement
AL means action – refusal
ING means activity– driving
AGE means result of activity - drainage
NESS means quality - happiness
ITY means quality – sanity
Verb Suffixes:
IFY means causative - simplify
IZE means causative- popularize
EN means become X – eaten
Adjective suffixes:
FUL - ful means having - useful
LESS - means without - childless
LY means quality- cowardly
LIKE means quality – childlike
Y means covered with- hairy
ISH means belonging to - Turkish
IAN means in tradition - Darwinian
ABLE means 'worthy to - readable
Ed means having – balconied
Adverb suffixes:
LY means in a…….. Manner, aimlessly, lovingly
CE once, twice, thrice - ST amidst, amongst.
LONG - headlong, sidelong
THER -hither, thither, whither
WARDS- backward, upward, (means direction)
WISE - in the manner of, lengthwise, weatherise
