UNIT 1
Listening
The process of listening is receiving a language through the ears. It involves the identification of the sounds of speech and processing them into words and sentences. Listening is the ability to precisely receive and interpret messages in the communication process.
Listening is one of the most important factors to all effective communication. Without effective listening ability, messages may be easily misunderstood. Therefore, as a result, sometimes communication breaks down and the sender of the message can easily become frustrated or irritated.
While listening, we use our ears to receive individual sounds (letters, stress, rhythm and pauses) and our brain converts these into messages that mean something to us.
Listening, like any other communication skill such as reading, writing or speaking requires focus and attention. It is a skill that some people ought to work on harder than others. People who have difficulty paying attention are typically poor listeners. Listening to texts in a second language requires even greater focus.
Identifying the Main Topic
Whether you're having a conversation in real life or listening to a passage on a test, knowing how to listen for the central idea is key to actually understanding what the other person is trying to say. The main topic is the most important concept or argument of the passage as a whole. Once you understand the main point, all the details will fall into place, but without the central idea, nothing really makes sense.
Many students struggle with this because they think they need to understand every single word and detail to know what a speaker is saying. Then, they get so nervous and frantic about remembering every little thing that they completely lose sight of the main point. In this lesson, you'll get some tips for avoiding this problem so you can stay focused on the main point.
Identifying Supporting Ideas using Word Chains
One tool you'll be able to use when you're trying to listen for the main point is word chains, sequences of comparable or related words repeated throughout the conversation. This is especially true when you're paying attention to something that the speaker has prepared beforehand, sort of a lecture for a class. Here's an example:
PROFESSOR: 'Good morning, class. Today we're talking about King Cyrus: specifically, what type of a leader is he? At some points, we see Cyrus conversing with his generals and discussing what action to take, which is what we expect of nearly as good leadership, but we also see him bribing his subordinates and tricking them into doing things. So, what kind of leadership is this? Is this the way we would expect a king to behave? Or, is it okay because Cyrus may be a military commander within the middle of a war?'
In this passage, you'll hear that 'leadership,' 'leader,' and related words are repeated several times. The same thing happens with the name 'Cyrus.' This creates a sort of chain of words, linking everything together; this is often a passage about King Cyrus and leadership.
Listening for these word chains may be a good way to identify the overall theme and sub topic of a passage, or what the entire passage is about. If you've really identified the topic, you must be ready to find related words scattered all throughout the passage, not just in one section or another.
Once you've identified the subject, you'll be able to ask yourself: 'what is the speaker saying about the topic?' The answer to this question will be: The main point of the passage. In this case, the professor is introducing some questions regarding King Cyrus and leadership.
Strategies to Improve Listening
There are two ways in which a person can listen to something being said to them – active and passive. Passive listening is listening without giving the speaker your full attention. Passive listening is like not listening at all therefore one must always give the speaker their full attention and practice active listening in order to fully grasp the meaning of what the speaker wants to say.
Below are some ways in which one can improve their listening comprehension skills:
- Listening to Podcasts and Audio Books
One can start listening to podcasts or audio books with comprehensible difficulty level, meaning the ones which one can already understand 60-80%. This is necessary as listening to material far above one’s skill level will only leave them dazed and confused.
2. Listening to the Appropriate Material
Listening to what one enjoys is also important. It would build up motivation to continue exercising their listening skills. If you are interested in a particular genre of a book or a particular speaker then try listening to them first as they would be able to keep you more interested and engaged in the subject.
3. Entertainment is a Good Source of Learning
One should start watching English content beginning with short clips and move on to full movies and shows in English along with subtitles. This will help them get familiar with native pronunciation and syntax of different kinds of sentences. While watching with subtitles one should always avoid reading the subtitles beforehand and should read them as the words are being spoken.
4. Listen and Re-listen
Native English is fast spoken. Therefore, it is necessary to acquaint oneself with different speeds in spoken English. To do this, one should listen and re-listen the same material at different speeds while trying to focus on the different sounds, words and their meanings.
5. Taking Notes
When listening to an audio, it is often helpful to take notes.
While practicing listening, the following steps will help to understand the content more clearly:
Step 1:Write down the topic of the audio
Step 2:If there are multiple speakers, their names are to be written down (e.g. Speaker 1, Speaker 2)
Step 3:Write down the crux of what each speaker is trying to convey.It is even better to use points for their central ideas.
Step 4:If you frequently hear a word you do not understand, try to write it down so you can look it up later
Step 5:If there's a word or sentence you find interesting, write it down so that you can practice using it in your own conversations.
6. Conversing with Native Speakers
If possible, try talking to native speakers as they will have good pronunciation and intonation. At first it would be difficult to understand because of their accents and word stress but with more practice you will be able to successfully communicate with them. Conversing also has another additional advantage, it will not only help with your listening comprehension but will also help you learn how to speak the language with proper pronunciation.
Throughout your career, you'll likely meet several people that can help you develop needed skills and make progress. You can form a powerful connection with an interviewer, network contact or mentor and even a new friend once you have a refined self-introduction.
The Benefits of a Strong Introduction
Learning how to introduce yourself professionally and informally has many advantages. Others may perceive you as self-assured and capable if you begin with a powerful introduction. An effective opening can make your conversation more engaging, whether your goal is to achieve employment, make a sale, acquire a mentor or simply make a brand new professional connection. Establishing yourself as an open, friendly and professional individual can create opportunities in personal as well as professional life.
Steps for Introduction
Below are the steps you can follow for a good introduction:
1. State Your Purpose
Many people introduce themselves by stating their name and current job title, but you must also attempt to add information your new contact can't find on your business or identity card. If you are at a business event or conference, consider starting with your name, then stating what your passion is. You could also mention what your goal is for the encounter, like finding someone to collaborate with on a new idea that you have formulated.
If you're interviewing for a job, it may be beneficial to summarize who you are and why you are there. The position you are applying for is already known to the interviewers, therefore, in your introduction explain your purpose in a few sentences. You must include your name and the reasons why you are a good candidate for the position.
Start your introduction in a way that is appropriate for the context. For instance, if you're at a conferencing event, you may simply start your introduction by shaking a new connection's hand and providing them your first and last name. Then, a conversation may be started by asking and answering questions on their background and your own.
Interview introduction example: “My name is Jacob, I moved to Los Angeles because advertising is my passion, and this is the environment to seek out an inspirational, innovative ad community. I have a background in analyzing audiences for messaging optimization and would like to tell you about the innovative ideas I can bring to this role.”
2. Control Your Body Language
Both your words and your non-verbal communication make an impact on first impressions. Having command over body language is essential to staying poised and professional in a new introduction. For example, when you approach a new coworker in your department, start with a strong handshake, and maintain eye contact during the conversation. Doing this shows the receiving party you're engaged in your interaction.
When you introduce yourself to someone, you'll be able to demonstrate confidence by speaking in an exceedingly clear and audible voice. While communicating, try to maintain eye contact, natural body language with relaxed shoulders and open arms by your side. If you are seated, stand to greet someone who walks in the room while introducing yourself accompanied by a handshake if required, such as during an interview.
3. Explain Your Value
Employers might schedule multiple interviews throughout the day or week for employment opening. In a professional setting. An introduction should convey one's unique experience and qualifications so they stand out from other candidates. Hearing an introduction that sounds different from previous ones directs a new contact's attention toward the speaker and makes it unforgettable. During an interview introduction, for instance, you must let your interviewer know how you would make a valuable contribution to the company or the team.
Example: “My name is Charlotte, and I have more 10 years of experience working in the field of public relations. I have worked with over 20 destination marketing firms to extend tourism at their destinations, leading to 40% more business at certain locations.”
4. Understand the Culture
Consider researching the corporate before an interview or meeting to know their culture. Before an introduction with a computer programming company, for example, review the web site or social media pages to ascertain what the culture is like. If the corporate seems more casual, it should be appropriate to incorporate humour in your introduction. For a more formal interview or a meeting with a potential client, keeping a more professional demeanour may increase your chances to get hired or to gain the client's business.
Skimming
Skimming is the process of rapidly reading a text in order to get a general overview of the content. Skimming helps comprehend the general information within a text or a particular section of the text.
Before skimming, one should prepare oneself to read rapidly through the pages.One should not read every word; but special attention must be paid to typographical cues-headings, boldface and italic type, indenting, bulleted and numbered lists.
One should be alert for the names of people and places, key words and phrases, dates, nouns, and unfamiliar words.
Importance of Skimming
Skimming is a speed-reading technique which enables the reader to cover a vast amount of material very rapidly. It is a process of reading over text with the purpose of getting only the main ideas or the over-all impression of the content. Readers skim to get the information they need quickly without wasting time. They do not need to read everything which is what increases their speed-reading range. Your skimming skill lies in knowing what specific information to read.
It is very useful to pay attention to the organization of the text. Main ideas are found in the first sentence of each paragraph and in the first and last paragraphs. In skimming, to get an over-all impression, ignore the details and look for the main ideas. Be active all the time when you’re reading. You have to work at constructing the meaning of the text in what you’re reading.
In most academic writing, the paragraphs are organized internally. It is a coherent unit, which must connect to the previous and next paragraphs. Skimming a text using first lines of paragraphs is an effective way to find general information of your reading material. Always remember that reading is an interactive process.
You may also find that in some reading materials, the text is organized through the use of headings and sub-headings. This should help you get a feeling for the organization of the text and its content. You will find that familiar texts are easier to read when you are skimming a text using section headings.
Purposes of Skimming
Below are the various purposes skimming is used for:
- To find out what is in the newspaper of web articles
- To look through a text and decide if you should read further
- To look through the calendar, guide or program schedule to plan your daily activities
- To see through a catalogue to choose an offer
- To skim through the options after searching something on Google
Steps for Skimming
Skimming involves the following steps:
1. First the table of content or the chapter overview must be read to get the structural overview of the text.
2. Main headings of each chapter must be glanced through. All headings of charts and tables must be read.
3. After glancing through headings, the whole introductory paragraph must be read followed by the first and last lines of each succeeding paragraph. For each paragraph,only the first few words of each sentence must be read to locate the central idea.
4. Words indicated with boldface or italics must always be read.
5.When something significant is found, the whole sentence containing it should be given priority.One should not waste time reading extraneous details while skimming.
6.All chapter summaries must be read at the end if provided.
Skimming may help understand the text at the most basic level but to get the complete idea of a topic it should always be read completely. Skimming is useful for reading news articles, finding source material for research papers, previewing and reviewing or getting a general idea from a long selection of texts.
Although skimming can save hours of work, it is not advisable to skim often. This is because while skimming one may miss important points or finer shades of meaning.
Scanning
Scanning, like skimming, also uses keywords and organizational cues, but while the objective of skimming is a big picture view of the text, the objective of scanning is to locate and collect particular facts.
It is necessary to skim the text first to decide if it is likely to contain the facts you need. While skimming one should concentrate on table of contents, summaries, indexes, headings, and typographical cues. If after skimming it is established that the text has relevant information, it can be scanned.
Purposes of Scanning
Below are the important purposes of scanning:
- To search for a word in a dictionary or an index
- To find a phone number or an address in a directory
- To check the time or schedule of a program in an agenda
- To find out the price of a specific item in a catalogue
- To acquire particular information from a text
Rules for Scanning
Following are some rules to be kept in mind while scanning:
1. It is essential to know what one is looking for. If there is a keyword or a phrase attached to the topic, one should start with that word or phrase and begin the scanning process.
1. Only one keyword should be used during one scan. If there is a need for multiple keywords than multiple scans should be conducted.
2. The eyes should rapidly float around the page until the required keyword or phrase is found.
3. After finding the desired keyword, the text surrounding that keyword should be read carefully.
The Process of Scanning
The process of scanning could be tiring as it requires a lot of concentration. One should not let their attention wander while scanning as they might lose track of the keyword or phrase. Scanning is very useful during research projects to find particular facts or fact-heavy topics.
Before beginning to scan a text for a particular information, you know must find out some fundamental things about that text. You won't be able to scan a text efficiently if you do not have a basic idea regarding the contents of the text. You should skim it first to get some ideas about that text in case the text is completely unknown. This will help you to guess the section or part of the text where you might find the information you need.
Notice how the information is arranged. It can be arranged either alphabetically or numerically. However, some texts are not arranged at all. In those cases, you have to guess a section and scan it through to get your information.
Scanning a random unknown page of a text may prove to be difficult. It may consume more time than it typically should. Therefore, it is advisable that you move your eyes vertically and diagonally keeping in mind the exact letters or numbers you are looking for.
Steps for Scanning:
- State the specific information you are looking for.
- Try to anticipate how the answer will appear and what clues you might use to help you locate the answer. For example, if you were looking for a certain date, you would quickly read the paragraph looking only for numbers.
- Use headings and any other aids that will help you identify which sections might contain the information you are looking for.
- Selectively read and skip through sections of the passage.
Paragraph Structure
A paragraph is a group of related sentences that support one central idea. Generally, the paragraphs have three parts: the topic sentence, the body sentences, and the conclusion or sentence of the bridge to the next paragraph or paragraph. Paragraphs indicate where the division of a research book begins and ends, and, thus, helps the reader to see the order of the text and to understand its main points.
Business documents - such as letters, emails, reminders and reports - use categories to distinguish different types of information, ideas, and ideas. The sections written in the business format are organized in an orderly, professional and well-organized manner. When writing a business document, we have to look at how the paragraph will appear on the page, the organization of the section and its placement throughout the article. We have to agree on the way our categories are organized. We should use short language and simple style to keep the reader focused on our message.
Structure and Writing Style
Most of the subsections in the book revolve around the formation of three general sections of each section of the research paper, and, by extension, a comprehensive research paper, with an introduction, a body of facts and analysis, and a conclusion. You can see this structure in stages as it relates, describes, compares, compares or analyzes information. Each section of the paragraph plays an important role in conveying the meaning you desire to the reader.
Introduction (The Topic Sentence):
Writers don’t get a second chance to make a first impression. The first sentence or topic sentence of the paragraph will give readers a first impression of the argument, the writing style, and the overall quality of the work. A vague, random presentation, full of errors, a wall, or a developing introduction may create a negative impression. On the other hand, a short, fun, and well-written introduction will start readers not thinking too much about writer's analytical skills, writing, and the paper.
Introduction is an important road map throughout the paper. It conveys a wealth of information to readers. Can let them know what the topic is, why it's important, and how it is planned to continue the discussion. In most academic disciplines, introduction should contain a thesis that will enhance the main argument.
Introduction should also give the reader a sense of the types of information to use to make that argument with the general organization of the paragraphs and pages to follow. After reading introduction, readers should not have any major surprises in store when reading the main body of the paper.
Ideally, introduction will make readers want to read the paper. The introduction should spark the interest of readers, making them want to read the rest of the paper. Opening up with a compelling story, an interesting question, or a clear example can get readers to see why the topic is important and serves as an invitation for them to join you in informative discussions (remember, however, that these strategies will not be appropriate for all papers and advice).
The body: follows the introduction; discusses regulatory logic, uses facts, arguments, analyses, examples, and other information.
Conclusion: final stage; it summarizes the connection between the information discussed in the body of the paragraph and the governing concept of the paragraph. For longer paragraphs, you may want to include a bridge sentence introducing the next section or section of the paper. In some cases, the sentence of the bridge may be written in the form of a question. However, use this smart device a bit, otherwise, completing most sections with a question to lead to the next level sounds a bit daunting.
NOTE: This standard layout does not mean you should not be creative in your writing. Editing when each element fits into a category can make the paper engaging for the reader. However, don't get too creative in trying out the narrative flow of stages. Doing so may jeopardize the central issues of your research and limit the quality of your academic writing.
Construction of a Paragraph
Paragraph content:
Each section has to deal with one main idea. Introduce the main idea to a common statement in the first paragraph of a paragraph. Follow this topic sentence with a few sentences that support the main idea. This may contain informative information or debate to defend your view. Wrap up the paragraph with a summary sentence. If the class is running too long, you risk losing the student's attention. Instead, arrange the long section into two or more sections.
Paragraph Order:
A business document, such as a report or letter, begins with a paragraph that informs the title of the book. This is followed by one or more sections that develop the lesson. The concluding paragraph summarizes the information you provided or asked the student to take some action. For example, a letter outlining the reasons for an ad campaign may begin with an introductory paragraph introducing the campaign, followed by three sections each explaining the unique purpose of the campaign and a concluding paragraph asking the reader to approve the campaign. If the document is long, use headers to separate large sections.
Paragraph Style:
The style of writing a paragraph can be formal or informal depending upon the context in which the paragraph is to be written. For example, while writing a fictional paragraph, an informal style would suffice. Here the tone may be friendly, the text may be personal or impersonal. While writing paragraphs for articles, the reader may be directly addressed. Business texts are written in formal style. Your writing may be read by third parties and kept by the company for many years, so avoid personal comments. Keep your writing up to date using gender-neutral language, as well as grammar and spelling. Keep your sentences short and to the point. Avoid clichés, contraction and slang.
Types of Paragraphs
There are four main types of paragraphs that are used in fiction as well as nonfiction writing, they are:
1. Descriptive Paragraph
A descriptive paragraph is one a type of paragraph which is describing a person, place, thing, animal, theme or idea to the reader. Descriptive paragraphs consist of sentences that make use of the five senses: how something feels, smells, sounds, tastes or looks. The more descriptive your paragraph can get, the more vivid picture you’re providing your reader. A good descriptive paragraph will make them desire they were there experiencing everything you’re talking about. Descriptive paragraphs are powerful tools for fiction writers, as these paragraphs are useful for setting the stage and telling the story.
2. Narrative Paragraph
A narrative paragraph is a type of paragraph which helps the writer in telling a story or keeping a story moving. Narrative paragraphs typically include sentences containing action, events and stream of consciousness that are written in exciting descriptive words. These paragraphs help keep the reader interested in the story. Narrative paragraphs are almost like descriptive paragraphs (and a paragraph may very well be both at once), but a narrative paragraph tends to supply the reader more background information, such as past events that initiate to or cause events within the story. These are also vital paragraphs for fiction writers, as they assist the reader to visualize the complete picture.
3. Persuasive Paragraphs
A persuasive paragraph is one in which the author is truly giving his own opinion on a particular subject or topic. Persuasive paragraphs must include facts and data that help to enforce the writer’s opinion. These paragraphs often show up in speeches or editorial essays and other kinds of writing where the primary goal is persuasion. In fiction, use these paragraphs to convince the reader to feel a particular way toward a character, place or event, perhaps a unique way than they may have felt earlier in the story.
4. Explanatory Paragraph
An explanatory paragraph offers the reader information on a specific subject. These paragraphs may contain directions or might describe a process in an exceedingly logical, linear manner. Explanatory paragraphs should also be factual in nature and don't seem to be a typical tool for fiction writers.
Content Words and Function Words
The English language is basically comprised of eight parts of speech that construct a complete sentence: noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, conjunction, and interjection. These parts of speech determine how a word functions in meaning as well as grammatically within the sentence.
Content words are words that describe the subject or the action that takes places in a sentence. They include:
- Noun
Nouns, also called naming words, refer to any person, place, animal, thing or idea. Nouns can be singular or plural, concrete or abstract. There are two types of nouns:
- Proper noun- These nouns start with capital letters and refer to the name of a particular place or thing. Ex – Barack Obama, Himalaya mountains.
- Common noun- These nouns start with lower case letter and refer to the names of general places or things. Ex – man, teacher, letter
2. Adjective
An adjective is a word that describes the quality or quantity possessed by a noun. It answers the questions like which one, what kind or how many. It is a word used to modify or describe the noun or a pronoun.
Ex - Young boy, Pretty girl, Huge elephant, Onethousand sea shells.
3. Adverb
An adverb is a word that modifies or describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb, but never a noun. When, where, how, why, under what conditions, or to what degree are the types of questions that are answered by an adverb. Adverbs often end in -ly.
Ex- Very long letter, quickly disappear out of sight.
4. Verb
A verb is a word that expresses the state of being or work being done by the subject. There are main verbs and there are also helping verbs known as auxiliary verbs. Verbs can also be used to express tense.
Ex – She vanished in the darkness.
Function words are connecting words that connect the content words to form a structurally coherent and meaningful sentence. They include:
- Pronoun
A pronoun is a word used in place of the noun.
A pronoun which substituted in place of a specific noun is called an antecedent. Pronouns can be further defined by their various types: personal pronouns describe specific persons or things; possessive pronouns imply ownership; relative pronouns introduce a subordinate clause; and demonstrative pronouns identify, point to, or refer to nouns.
Ex - Me, she, her, mine, theirs.
2. Conjunction
A conjunction is a word that joins words, phrases or clauses and establishes a relationship between them. And, but, or, nor, for, so, yet are some examples of conjunctions.
3. Interjection
An interjection is a word which is used to express emotion. They are usually followed by exclamation points.
Ex. Oh dear! Wow! Oh my God!
5. Preposition
Prepositions are words placed before a noun or a pronoun in order to modify the meaning of other words in a sentence. The prepositional phrase almost functions as an adjective or an adverb.
Ex- The boy received a number of sweets from the teacher.
Basic Sentence Structure
Structure in English grammar simply means how the different parts of speech are arranged and organised in a sentence so as to form a complete coherent thought. The English language comprises of many parts such as nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverbs conjunctions, prepositions, adjectives etc. It is through the correct use of these elements in a sentence that it becomes meaningful. Therefore, it is essential to understand how each of these parts of speeches has to be structured in a sentence.
There are mainly four types of sentence structures in English language –
- Simple Sentence:
A simple sentence consists of only a subject and a verb. It may also contain an object but it will always have only one independent clause.
Examples: They Studied.
I used the shaver.
He will not fight.
An independent Clause is a group of words containing a noun and a verb which expresses a complete thought.
2. Compound Sentence:
Compound sentences are sentences which comprise two or more independent clauses these clauses are often combine using a semi-colon or an appropriate conjunction.
Examples: I took my umbrella to work today but it did not rain.
He organized his files by tags; then, he updated his reference list.
She tried to write a good review and she succeeded in her efforts.
3. Complex Sentence:
A complex sentence is a type of structure that consists of at least one independent clause and one dependent clause/subordinate clause. Dependent clause is a group of words that contain a subject and a verb but they do not express a complete thought.
In a compound sentence, a dependent clause will usually refer to the subject (who, which) the sequence/time (since, while), or the causal elements (because, if) of the independent clause.
Examples: Because he did his work so diligently, he was praised by everyone in the room.
Jake cried because he couldn’t hit the ball.
He studied for hours and hours with no interest in the subject whatsoever.
4. Complex-Compound Sentence:
The complex-compound sentence is the combination of complex and compound sentence structures. A complex compound sentence will contain at least two independent clauses and at least one subordinate clause.
Examples: She did not mean to hurt him, but he wouldn’t listen to reason, so she had no choice.
Bill tried to apologize to the manager but she ignored him, so he quit the job.
I’m not wrong for thinking this way because I have been hurt in the past as I was a naïve young boy.
WH-questions
Wh-questions begin with what, when, where, who, whom, which, whose, why and how. We use them to ask for information. The answer cannot be yes or no:
A:
When do you finish college?
B:
Next year.
A:
Who is your favourite actor?
B:
George Clooney for sure!
Question word | Function | Example sentence |
What | Asking for information about something | What is your name? |
Asking for repetition or confirmation | What? I can't hear you. | |
What...for | Asking for a reason, asking why | What did you do that for? |
When | Asking about time | When did he leave? |
Where | Asking in or at what place or position | Where do they live? |
Which | Asking about choice | Which colour do you want? |
Who | Asking what or which person or people (subject) | Who opened the door? |
Whom | Asking what or which person or people (object) | Whom did you see? |
Whose | Asking about ownership | Whose are these keys? |
Why | Asking for reason, asking what...for | Why do you say that? |
Why don't | Making a suggestion | Why don't I help you? |
How | Asking about manner | How does this work? |
Asking about condition or quality | How was your exam? | |
How + adj/adv | Asking about extent or degree | See examples below |
How far | Distance | How far is Pattaya from Bangkok? |
How long | Length (time or space) | How long will it take? |
How many | Quantity (countable) | How many cars are there? |
How much | Quantity (uncountable) | How much money do you have? |
How old | Age | How old are you? |
How come (informal) | Asking for reason, asking why | How come I can't see her? |
Word Order in Sentences
Any sentence in the English language comprises of three main elements viz. The subject, the verb and the object.
Subject:
A person, animal, place, thing, or idea that does an action. Decide the subject in a sentence by asking the question “Who or what?”
- He ran fast.
- I was late to work.
- The paper does not identify which type of format it must be in.
Verb:
Expresses what the person, animal, place, thing, or idea does. Decide the verb in a sentence by asking the question “What was the action or what happened?”
- I have sufficient money to buy a cake.
- My favourite flavour is chocolate.
The movie is good. (Be verb is also sometimes mentioned to as a copula or a linking verb. It connects the subject, in this case the movie, to the complement or the predicate of the sentence, in this case, good.)
Object:
A person, animal, place, thing, or idea that receives the action. Decide the object in a sentence by asking the question “The subject did what?” or “To whom? /For whom?”
- Jacob stood on his tiptoes.
- The car turned the corner.
All sentences in the English language are constructed through different combinations of quality and complexity of the subject, verb and the object.
Combining these three elements, we can break down a sentence into two parts known as clauses and another part known as prepositional phrase:
Independent clause:
An independent clause can stand alone and give complete meaning. It has a subject and a verb.
I like ice cream
He reads many stories.
Dependent clause:
A dependent clause cannot stand alone and give complete meaning. It must be attached to an independent clause to give complete meaning. This is also called as subordinate clause.
Because I woke up late this morning… (What happened?)
When they came to meet me… (What occurred?)
If my friend does not pay his fees on time… (What will happen?)
PrepositionalPhrase:
A phrase that start with a preposition (i.e., at, for, in, behind, during, until, after, of,) and modifies a word in the sentence. The prepositional phrases answer for many questions. Here are a few examples: “Where? When? In what way?”
- His is only one voice among many, but it will be heard.
- The other books are in the box beneath the bed.
English Sentence Structure:
The following statements are true about sentences in English:
- A new sentence starts with a capital letter.
My father bought a car.
- A sentence ends with punctuation (a period, a question mark, or an exclamation point)
What a beautiful rose it is!
- A sentence has a subject that is only given once.
Smith joined in a college.
- A sentence has a verb or a verb phrase.
He got his degree.
- A sentence follows Subject + Verb + Object word order.
He (subject) got (verb) his degree (object).
- A sentence must give complete meaning that stands alone. This is also called an independent clause.
Teaching is an honest profession.
English vocabulary has been enriched from time to time from other languages.New words are either borrowed or coined. Roughly 70% of the words in English are borrowed or coined. T.C. Baruah says "A word says "A word is the smallest meaningful unit of sound.Every language has its own distinct patterns of combining morphemes to get larger units.
A form to which a rule of word-formation applied is called a base. Once a base has undergone a rule of word-formation the derived word itself may become the base for another, deviation and by re-application.It is possible to derive words of considerable morphological and semantic complexity. There are three major processes by which the base is modified. They are:
- Affixation
- Conversion
- Compounding
There are some other minor devices also called reduplication, clipping blending and acronym.
AFFIXATION: Prefixes and Suffixes
Change is the forte of any living language. Affixes are those used to form new words. These affixes are added either before or after the base form. It is of two types. Prefixation and suffixation.
Below are examples of some commonly used prefixes with their meanings:
Prefix | Meaning | Examples |
Un- | Not | Unhappy, unsuccessful, unable |
Re- | Again | Redo, return, reappear |
Dis- | Not, undo | Disappear, disgrace , discontinue |
Inter- | Between | International, internet, intermission |
Non- | Not | Nonsense, nonfiction, nonviolent |
Pre- | Before | Predawn, prefix, precaution |
Post- | After | Postpone, postscript, postwar |
Poly- | Many | Polygamy, polyester, polyglot |
Sub- | Under | Subterranean, submarine, subordinate |
c o- | Together | Cooperate, collaborate, coordinate
|
Below are some examples of the most commonly used suffixes with the change in forms of words:
Form | Suffix | Meaning | Examples |
Noun | -age | Action or process | Marriage, voyage,pilgrimage |
-ence | State or quality of | Violence, absence, reticence | |
-ant | One who | Servant, immigrant, assistant | |
-arium | Place for | Aquarium, planetarium, auditorium | |
-tion | State or quality of | Starvation, inspiration, tension | |
-cy | State or quality of | Accuracy, bankruptcy, conspiracy | |
-dom | State or quality of | Freedom, boredom, wisdom | |
-eer | Person | Engineer, puppeteer, auctioneer | |
-ectomy | Surgical removal of | Tonsillectomy, appendectomy |
| -ent | One who | Superintendent, resident, regent |
-eur | One who | Chauffeur, masseur | |
-hood | State or quality of | Childhood, falsehood, neighborhood | |
-i | Plural | Alumni, foci, syllabi | |
-ism | Doctrine of | Capitalism, socialism, patriotism | |
-wright | One who works with | Playwright, shipwright | |
-ology | Study of | Biology, etymology, psychology | |
Adjective | -able | Is, can be | Comfortable, durable, perishable |
-acious | Inclined to be | Audacious, loquacious, spacious | |
-ant | Inclined to be | Vigilant, pleasant, defiant | |
-ative | Inclined to be | Demonstrative, talkative, pejorative | |
-ic | Characteristic of | Comic, poetic, historic | |
-y | Characteristic of | Fruity, sunny, chewy | |
Verb | -ble | Repeated action | Stumble, squabble, mumble |
-ed | Past tense | Wanted, hated, looted | |
-en | Made of | Strengthen, fasten, frighten | |
-ify | To make | Terrify, falsify, vilify | |
-ize | To make | Standardize, computerize, pulverize | |
Adverb | -ly | Resembling | Slowly, kindly, seriously |
-ward | Direction | Forward, backward, onward | |
-ways | Manner | Sideways, crossways |
CONVERSION
Conversion is the derivational process whereby an item changes its word class without the addition of either a prefix or suffix. In this process the same word is made to serve different grammatical functions. Many English words belong to more than one part of speech Ex: hope, love, work may be nouns as well as verbs. In addition to this,there is a deliberate transfer of a word from one part of speech to another. He calls it a conversion.
i) Verb - Noun conversion:
a) State - State of mind/sensation/doubt, love etc.
Ii) Adjective - Noun conversion:
He seemed average (adjective)
The average was eighty (noun)
Iii) Noun - Verb conversion:
a) To put in/on noun bottle (to put into a bottle) corner, floor.
b) To give or to provide with somethingcoat - to give a coat of paint- mask.
Iv) Adjective Verb conversion:
They were very humble (adjective)
They humbled him (Verb)
v) Adjective - Adverb Conversion:
The poem reads well (adjective)
He reads the poem well (adverb)
Vi) Stress shift:
con ‘duct (n) – ‘conduct (n)
Pro’duce (v) – ‘produce (n)
COMPOUNDS
English has a genius pattern for the formation of very expressing compound words. A compound word is a unit that consists of two or more words. There are no formal criteria that can be used for a general definition of compounds.
Orthographically they are written as one-word (bedroom) sometimes they are hyphenated (tax-free) and sometimes as two words without a hyphen (reading room) compounds may be classified on the basis of their syntax.
A. Noun compounds:
i)Subject and verb compounds:
The sun rises: Sunrise
The day breaks Day break
The girl dances: Dancing girl.
Ii) Verb and object compounds:
x calls the girl: call girl
x chews gum: chewing gum
x pays taxes: Tax payer
xsee sights: sight seeing
Iii) Verb and Adverbial compounds:
x swims in the pool: swimming pool
x sits with the baby; baby sitter
xwork at home : Home work
Iv) Noun + Noun (Verb compound)
Wind mill, Toy factory, Blood stain, Oak tree, girl-friend, motor cycle,Ashtray
v) Other noun & noun
It names an entire thing by specifying some features.
Paper back - the book has a paper back
- blockhead - pot-belly, blue bell, bird brain, high brow, loudmouth
- pale face, fat head, etc.
B. Adjective compounds:
a) Verb+Object compounds
Man - Eating - x eats man
- heart breaking
- self-defeating
- breath taking
b) Verb+Adverb compounds:
x goes across oceans: Ocean going
x feel it in the heart :Heart felt
x works hard : Hard working
Reduplicative
Re-duplicatives are compounds which have two or more elements either identical or only slightly different.
eg: goody-goody (affectedly good)
The difference between the two elements may be in the initial consonants as in walkie-talkie or in the medial vowels egcriss-cross Most of the re-duplicatives are highly informal or familiar.
a)to imitate sounds:
tick-tack, bow-vow, ding-dong, ping-pong, flip-flap
b) to suggest alternative movements
see -saw
c) to identify
tip-top
d) to disparage by suggesting instability, nonsense, insincerity, vacillation, etc.
e.g:
- Humpty – dumpty
- Hurry – burry
- Hanky-panky
- Higgledy–piggledy
- Pell–mell
- Wishy - washy
- Zig – zag
CLIPPING
It is formed by the people who are fond of brevity - the term clipping notes the subtraction of one or more syllable from a word. This is used in informed style.
The shortening may occur at
a) The beginning of the word:
Telephone – phone
Omnibus - bus
aeroplane– plane
b) The end of the word :
Mike – Microphone
exam - examination
Movies - Moving pictures
add – advertisement
Photo – Photograph
c) At both ends of the word:
flu –influenza
BLENDS
In a blend atleast one of the elements is fragmentary; words are coined by combining parts of words. Many blends have only a short life and are very informal.
e.g.
Motel from Motor + Hotel
Smog from smoke + Fog
Transistor from Transfer + Registor
Brunch from breakfast + lunch
Electrocute from Electro + Execute
Telecast from Television + Broadcast
ACRONYMS:
Acronyms are words formed from the initial letters of words. They are abbreviations of words. They are pronounced as a succession of Letters (alphabetisms) as in BBC, TV etc or as words in NATO, SEATO,etc.
A)Alphabetisms:
C.O.D - Cash on delivery
U.N - United Nations
G.H.Q - General head quarters
b) Words:
UNESCO - United Nations educational scientific and cultural organization
RADAR - Radio Detection and Ranging.
By the process of word formation, the original roots have acquired a variety of meaning.
